Gender Stereotypes in Cinema as Examined Through the...

Gender Stereotypes in Cinema as Examined Through Taken and Snitch Introduction: Modern cinema is at once an opportunity for escapism and a direct reflection of realities within our broader culture. This is why the issue of gender portrayal and the representation of gender roles in film are both such important issues. In many ways, the images placed on the big screen can have a direct impact on the way that our collective culture forms its ideals and expectations. As a culture, we are highly susceptible to the impression-building that is conjured in our media and reflected back to us. In many cases, the performances on screen suggest an idealized version of ourselves, whether in their physical attraction, sexual prowess or heroic behavior. Perhaps this one of the fantasies that makes truly great cinema such a transporting experience. But even in great cinema, a certain reality must be acknowledged. Specifically, the fact that our culture is reflected in a certain respect on the movie screen suggests that many of its less-admirable qualities are also depicted. The focus of this discussion is on the manner in which gender roles are prescribed in cinema and, even more specifically, how female characters in film are largely confined to one-dimension archetypes either to be rescued, sexually objectified or villanized. A strong woman that does not fit these characteristics is rare in film. This is especially so in the highly patriarchal milieu of action-oriented films, within

Gender Inequality Of The Professional World Is A Common...

Nowadays, the role of women in the professional world is a common topic of discussion at an academic level. Likewise, society as a whole is in need of modifying its perception about traditional models under continuous change. In that sense, this paper will address the topic of gender inequality in the workplace, providing a critical analysis on how women have gained an increasing active role in the professional and labor spheres, but facing genre inequalities in turn. We will analyze how these inequalities are grounded in a binary traditional structure that assigned men and women specific roles, and how the assessment of organizations becomes fundamental as they are constituted as places where gender inequality is highly present: â€Å"Contemporary stratification scholars are unlikely to deny the claim that organizations are the primary site of the production and allocation of inequality in modern societies† (Stainback, Tomaskovic-Devey Skaggs, 2010). Finally, this essay will address the possible solutions for this issue, trying to shed light on appropriate ways to achieve equality in labor environments and in the whole society as well. As was mentioned recently, within this paper we will analyze gender inequality in the workplace, considering organizations as key places where discrimination becomes really visible. Research has shown that the workplace reflects discrimination in several ways, for example, the gender wage gap (meaning that for the same position and with the sameShow MoreRelatedGender Inequality in Literature Essay1187 Words   |  5 PagesGender equality, men and women having the same rights and obligations, and everyone having the same opportunities in society, has been a topic of discussion for man and women for centuries (Dorious and Firebaugh). For many centuries, women have used literature as a voice used to defend their rights as women. 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Integrated Marketing Communication for Apple iPhone and Apple Mac

Question: Discuss about theIntegrated Marketing Communication for Apple iPhone and Apple Mac. Answer: Blog 1 Apple is one of the worlds largest companies that has been manufacturing gadgets. The company started with its humble beginning when its two founders Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded the company in a garage in United States (Isaacson, 2012). Todays the company produces and manufactures some of the most sought after products in the gadgets genre like the Apple iPhone, Apple Mac, Apple TV which is recently launched and the latest craze the Apple watch. The company has been doing its marketing totally right which has led to such immense growth in such short time period. Of course there have been great contribution of the marketing and innovative ideas of Steve Jobs who is respected as one of the most respected marketing Gurus in modern times, however the company has a great team of marketing experts who has continued the growth of the company and did not allow some of the controversies to reduce the pace of the growth. The company in the very beginning when it was producing the mother boards had marketed its products very efficiently in whatever ways they could. The first major Apple product which turned the fortunes of the company called the McIntosh which was the first personal computer from the company, had been very successful because of the campaign that surrounded the product. People were waiting for it to come out (Thomke Feinberg, 2012). It was the year 1984 that McIntosh was first released and the product was aimed at reducing the complexity which was involved in operating a computer and it was successfully conveyed in the advertisements that Apple published in various mediums. One of the advertisement displayed a mouse with three buttons and people were excited to see this new product being launched. References: Isaacson, W. (2012). The real leadership lessons of Steve Jobs.Harvard business review,90(4), 92-102. Thomke, S. H., Feinberg, B. (2012).Design thinking and innovation at Apple. Harvard Business School Publishing. Blog 2 Apple, like many companies, devoted considerable effort to maintaining its corporate image. One tactic involved presenting writers with material on the company, like Jean Richardson and Rene White's 1980 "Apple Computer" corporate backgrounder. Another involved regulating press access to Apple employees, and vice versa: Barbara Krause'sInquiries from the Presssummarizes company policy. Apple was successful in introducing one of the first integrated marketing campaigns in the history by publishing in the newspapers, giving television advertisements and Steve Jobs personally appearing for interviews and talking about the new products. The Apple McIntosh computers aimed at bringing computers for normal people so that everyone could use it. The Graphic User Interface worked well in this regards. In the coming years it became a craze of the Apple fans to wait for Steve Jobs to appear before the crowd and introduce a new product. This trend is now continued by the present Apple CEO Tim Cook has continued the trend of appearing before the audience once a year and introduce the new Apple products especially the new IPhone that is launched every year (Hunter et al., 2012). The marketing strategy of Apple has been to involve people in a way that they feel to be a part of the new products launches and that they wait for new products to be launched and Tim Cook has continued it (Richtel Chen, 2014). Every year Apple Inc. launches its new version of iPhone, this can be hardly matched by any other company, to launch a single series of product every year with new features and expecting people to buy it. Integrated marketing communication has worked wonder for Apple in this regards and the loyal Apple iPhone customers do not hesitate to buy new phones paying a hefty price, this is beca use the aura Apple has created around its products through its marketing campaigns. References: Hunter, S. T., Cushenbery, L., Fairchild, J., Boatman, J. (2012). Partnerships in leading for innovation: A dyadic model of collective leadership.Industrial and Organizational Psychology,5(4), 424-428. Richtel, M., Chen, B. X. (2014). Tim Cook-Making Apple His Own.New York Times, Technology,15. Blog 3 Death of Steve Jobs due to prolonged illness had a big impact on Apple, as Steve Jobs himself was a factor who could draw half of the crowd without any marketing, such was his personal charisma. He has been viewed as one of the most prominent innovators and leaders both in the field of marketing and in the field of technological innovations. He introduced the system of launching new products and marketing them in a integrated manner. The integrated marketing communication around Apple watch was one of the most prominent and innovative integrated marketing communication campaign that has been ever taken up by any technological company. The launch of Apple watch was announced from months before and people were waiting for the product to be launched and then on the launch date there big advertisements in the newspapers, the internet was full of Apple watch advertisements, all the blogs that dealt with tech news has one single point agenda to talk about, the Apple watch. In the big malls and departmental stores the Apple watch was there for people to try and experience firsthand (Rawassizadeh Price Petre, 2015). The existing iPhone users were all updated and notified again and again to buy the latest Apple watch. Apple introduced the world to several category-defining products, the Mac, iPod, iPhone and iPad, said Tim Cook, Apples CEO. And once again Apple is poised to captivate the world with a revolutionary product that can enrich peoples lives. Its the most personal product weve ever made. (Apple.com, 2016) With Apple Watch, weve developed multiple technologies and an entirely new user interface specifically for a device thats designed to be worn. It blurs the boundary between physical object and user interface, said Jony Ive, Apples senior vice president of Design. Weve created an entire range of products that enable unparalleled personalization. (Apple.com, 2016) It is evident that how the people directly responsible for the products and who came from the topmost rung of the company were personally engaged in marketing the products. References: Apple.com. (2016).Apple Unveils Apple WatchApples Most Personal Device Ever.Apple Newsroom. Retrieved 24 March 2018, from https://www.apple.com/in/newsroom/2014/09/09Apple-Unveils-Apple-Watch-Apples-Most-Personal-Device-Ever/ Rawassizadeh, R., Price, B. A., Petre, M. (2015). Wearables: Has the age of smartwatches finally arrived?.Communications of the ACM,58(1), 45-47. Blog 4 The launch of the first iPhone has been characterized by great public attention and people wanting to understand what it felt like using a mobile phone that was more innovative and user friendly than any other device made till date. Former Apple CEO Steve Jobs had again and again confirmed that how much importance the company gave to the factor simplicity. According to Jobs one of the main driving forces and characteristic features that has helped Apple to grow in such a small time was its simplicity, both in terms of design and in terms of usage (Isaacson, 2012). The products were aimed to be very easy to use but give maximum optimization capabilities. Now the problem was how this was to be conveyed to the potential customers all over the world. Here comes into play the factor of marketing strategy. Steve Jobs himself steered the initial marketing endeavors of Apple Inc. which became so successful that 74 days after its introduction the company announced that it has sold the One mil lionth iPhone. This was almost unimaginable in terms of volume. Apple had applied several marketing communication strategies in order to gain such success in terms of business and to increase the goodwill of the company (Boone Kurtz, 2013). Advertising, events, and promotional offers were later introduced. Today Apple have tied up with several telecom companies in order to increase its business, two of which are Airtel and Vodafone. Apple has introduced promotional offers like easy EMI options and cashback offers. The company has tied up with Airtel in several countries and theey are giving customers several benefits like lower tariff rates and discounts in mobile bills. References: Boone, L. E., Kurtz, D. L. (2013).Contemporary marketing. Cengage learning. Isaacson, W. (2012). The real leadership lessons of Steve Jobs.Harvard business review,90(4), 92-102. Blog 5 The latest product of Apple is its iPhone X. Our vision has always been to create an iPhone that is entirely screen. One so immersive the device itself disappears into the experience. And so intelligent it can respond to a tap, your voice and even a glance. With iPhoneX, that vision is now a reality. Say hello to thefuture. This is the official statement of Apple in its website about the iPhone X (Apple.com, 2018). The marketing strategy was to induce the urge in the potential customers to make it impossible for them not to buy the product. The iPhone X is branded as a product of the future. It has some of the features that is not found in other phones in the planet. The marketing strategy that has been taken including the promotional videos of the phone in YouTube and the experience that it gives it is termed as not just a phone but a phenomenon in itself. It is an experience, that one must use to understand. Technological experts have concluded that the product is more of a status symbol than a gadget that will assist its users to ease their daily problems. Apple presented the product in a way that people who are interested in technology and gadgets not only they will buy the products, but people who do not understand technology well but are interested in high ends lifestyle products to match their status symbol will also tend to buy it. Apple took up a very different but innovative strategy during its launch, it allowed access of the iPhone X to some popular tech gurus in YouTube. They reviewed the product in a very short time that did not allow them to understand the flaws well, and as launch date was near the product was already a hit and people waiting anxiously for it to launch. References: Apple.com. (2018).iPhone X.Apple.com. Retrieved 24 March 2018, from https://www.apple.com/in/iphone-x/?muid=528C4450-05E0-421C-A64E-89560ABA0900mtid=20925st142673aosid=p238cid=wwa-in-kwgo-iphone-slid-mnid=sIugfsdnO-dc_mtid_20925st142673_pcrid_230229655339_ Blog 6 Apple previously never used the reviews and comments of any other entity in its press release. However, this time Apple had changed some aspects of its integrated marketing communication strategy and included the reviews from popular tech reviewers, newspapers and media giants in its press release. The best iPhone yet, Like Magic, This feels like the future were some of the reviews from trusted sources which themselves had goodwill in the market. Apple also adopted a policy of slow roll out of products and encouraged waiting from the part of the customers. The less time given to the reviewers had already made a situation where much flaws could not be detected, and now slow launch of the product had helped in maintaining the quality. When these strategies were already in place the company had continued to advertise the product all over the place including the internet. All the social media platforms were filled with advertisements and reviews about the iPhone X. The newspapers had large advertisements and the hoardings in the big cities featured the product in gigantic sizes. Apple understood that the people were already aware of the technological specifications of Apple, it was a waste to again reemphasize on the fact that Apple X had highly advanced technological specifications. Therefore, Apple this time highlighted the entertainment quotient of the product and the launch videos and the various other advertisements talked a bout the screen of the phone, the sound, the experience of the users in gaming, clicking photos or shooting videos (Forbes.com, 2018). Apple encouraged short documentary film makers to use iPhone for their shooting. Therefore, the product was more of a high end multimedia gadget rather than a tool to connect. The integrated marketing communication strategy was very successful in this case and the product continues to be sold in large numbers all around the world. References: Forbes.com (2018). Apple iPhone X: The Mid-Term Review. Ten Things To Love Or Hate. (2017).Forbes.com. Retrieved 24 March 2018, from https://www.forbes.com/forbes/welcome/?toURL=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidphelan/2017/12/10/apple-iphone-x-the-mid-term-review-ten-things-to-love-or-hate/refURL=https://www.google.co.in/referrer=https://www.google.co.in/

The Cask Of Amontillado-The Parodox Of Revenge Essays - Fiction

The Cask Of Amontillado-The Parodox Of Revenge The Paradox of Revenge The Cask of Amontillado raises a question pertaining to the multiple character of the self (Davidson 202); Can harmony of one's self be restored once primal impulses have been acted upon? This question proposes the fantasy of crime without consequence (Stepp 60). Edgar Allan Poe uses first person point of view, vivid symbolism and situational irony to show that because of man's inner self, revenge is ultimately not possible. Edward Davidson suggests that Montresor, the main character of the story, has the power of moving downward from his mind or intellectual being and into his brute or physical self and then return again to his intellectual being with his total self being unimpaired (202). However, Poe tells this story from Montresors point of view. The use of first person narration provides the reader with insight into Montresor's inner struggles. First person narration is Poe's method of insuring the reader understands that Montresor is not successful at this harmony. The thoughts and feelings of Montresor lead the reader to conclude that he is not successful at revenge. Montresor says in telling his story, You, who so well know the nature of my soul, will not suppose, however that I gave utterance to a threat (153). By communicating in this way, the question arises of who Montresor is actually speaking to, and why he is telling this story fifty years later. One can only conclude that it is for one of two reasons: he is either bragging or finally giving confession. As he tells the story, it becomes obvious that he has not yet filled his need to win, and now a half of a century later, is still struggling with his conscience. As Gregory Jay states, Introspection produces a doppelganger who becomes a moral antagonist (84). This is similar to Ken Frieden's theory that a rhetorical moment takes the place of a ghost and the speaker is driven to confess (144). Both of these thoughts are developed because of the fact that Montresor is telling the story himself. The means in which Montresor expresses himself expose his insecurities. When he no longer hears Fortunato crying out, he says, there was a long obstinate silence (156). The personification of the silence by the use of the word obstinate projects the intent on Fortunato, implying that Fortunato is purposely depriving Montresor of satisfaction. But actually, Montresor seeks to escape from his own limitations by imagining them as im posed by outside force (Stepp 61). The force is a surrogate of the self. Every word goes to characterize the narrator, Montresor, and adds to the irony of the story. Fifty years later he is confessing the story and taking particular delight in his cleverness, but is unaware he is revealing a desperate human emptiness. James Gargano makes a general statement about Poes narrators that applies perfectly to The Cask of Amontillado; he says, Poe assuredly knows what the narrator never suspects and what, by the controlled conditions of the tale, he is not meant to suspect--that the narrator is a victim of his own self-torturing obsessions (166). In this way, Montresor is a classic Poe character. Poe's use of symbolism gives the reader the opportunity to see the conflict between Montresor's inner self and his outer being. The deep, dark catacombs below the surface represent the dark self that lies beneath Montresor's surface. In attempting to bury Fortunato alive, Montresor is actually attempting to bury his inner self. He is attempting to destroy a primal evil that has driven him to revenge. On the surface, Montresor seems to have the appearance of a serious and intelligent man, but his alter ego that is symbolically demonstrated through Fortunato, wears the cap and bells of a jester. Walter Stepp notes that there is perfect symmetry of opposition between Montresor and Fortunato and that Montresor had an obsessional wish to demonstrate that 'he is not I' and 'I am not he'(57). The conflict of the selves comes to a horrifying climax as Montresor is trying to build the wall and bury Fortunato alive. For a few brief moments when Fortunato is silent (as is Montresor's evil self) , Montresor's rational mind

Welfare Essays (824 words) - Federal Assistance In The United States

Welfare Welfare is a government program that provides money, medical care, food, housing, and other things that people need in order to survive. People who can receive help from these welfare programs are children, elders, disabled, and others who cannot support their families on their current income. Another name for welfare is public assistance. There are many organizations that supply this public assistance. Such as Salvation Army and other groups. Public assistance benefits help many people who live below the poverty line, an income level is established for families. If your income is below this you would be eligible to receive this help. Welfare in the United States Federal and state governments in the Unites States serve the poor people through about 60 public assistance programs. Most people receive help through one of the four major programs. These programs are Medicaid, Aid to families with dependant Children, Social Security, or Supplemental Security, or the food stamps program. I will discuss the four programs individually. Medicaid provides free medical care to the poor people. Funds vary from state to state. In some situations, people who may be able to pay daily needs, but can't afford large medical bills may also be able to receive Medicaid. Some services paid for are bills such as doctor's visits and nursing home care. Most Medicaid funding comes from the federal government. The rest is supplied by the state. Each state runs their own Medicaid program. A.F.D.C. provides cash benefits to dependent children and the parents or the guardians taking care of them. Most families that qualify for A.F.D.C. have just one parent in the home. About 80 percent of these families are headed by a woman. A.F.D.C. also pays benefits to two-parent families if both parents are unemployed. Most A.F.D.C. funding comes from the federal government. The states provide the rest of the money and administer the program. The sizes of families' payment vary from state to state. Next is Social Security Income. This provides financial Aid to people in need who are at least 65 years old, blind, or disabled. The federal government finances and administers social security income programs in most states, though some states supply the federal payment and are able to run their own programs. Finally, the Food Stamp Program helps low-income households buy more and better food than they could otherwise afford. Each participating household receives a certain number of coupons called food stamps. The stamps are issued by the federal government. The number of stamps a household receives varies with the family's size, income, and expenses. Cooperating grocery stores accept the stamps like money for food purchases only. There are other programs such as energy assistance and public housing. Energy assistance, which is federally financed but administered by the states, helps people pay fuel bills. Public housing provides low cost rental apartments in government owned buildings. State and local governments fund and administer their own general assistance programs. These programs provide financial aid for needy people who do not qualify for other types of welfare. People waiting to receive assistance from other programs also may get temporary emergency aid from general assistance. Back in the early days, welfare resembled the English system. Social governments were responsible for helping the poor. But the colonies and later the states, sometimes helped the local government provide aid. The first federal welfare program, began after the Revolutionary War, they provided pensions to war veterans. During the Civil War these pensions were expanded to cover soldiers' widows and orphans. In the early 1900's, primary responsibility for providing welfare benefits shifted from local to state governments. During these years, states enacted programs to aid dependent children and the elderly. The criticisms of welfare ranges over a number of social and economic issues. Some people criticize welfare programs for not providing high enough benefits to eliminate poverty. Spending on welfare would have to increase greatly to eliminate poverty, and many people believe the cost is already too high. Many critics of the welfare system charge that providing a steady income to needy people encourages idleness. Actually, most welfare benefits go to elderly, blind, and disabled people and mothers with young children. But welfare does discourage some recipients from working harder by reducing benefits if their income increases. Many people also criticize the welfare system for being too complex and costly to administer. Each program has its own eligibility requirements and ways of calculating benefits, and these rules vary from state to state. Public officials collect detailed information about applicants to determine their eligibility for benefits. This process is time-consuming and costly. Some people cheat the system by not reporting all the income they earn. But

5 Traits of People Who Always Get Promoted at Work

5 Traits of People Who Always Get Promoted at Work Ever feel like you’re doing all the right things, but watching everyone around you advance while you’re still stuck spinning your wheels? Here are 5 things that successful people- you know, the ones getting all of those promotions every year- seem to have in common.1. They Have a StrategyRather than continuing to apply blindly up the ladder, highly successful (and highly promoted) people tend toward a more strategic approach. They choose jobs not based on simply getting to the next rung up, but on their particular strengths. And they have their next move already in mind. They figure out what their next job should be before applying to a new one. That way they’re always thinking about the skills and experiences they should be building now to move seamlessly towards their next position.2. They Say NoYou may think that you need to say â€Å"yes† to every proposed project in order to get ahead, but that’s not true. Truly successful people (even Warren B uffett) know that picking their projects and their battles- and prioritizing what they need to do to end up where they need to be- is the better strategy. They’re ruthless and discriminating in their choices.3. They Know How to Handle The BossSuccessful people realize their bosses hold the key to their advancement. If a boss is getting in the way, they find a way around it. They work their bosses, using â€Å"we† language and getting involved in what matters most to the person in charge of their next career steps. They challenge their bosses and gain their respect. Consequently, their bosses know when to promote them.4. They Keep Proof of Their SuccessesSuccessful professionals know they need hardcore proof that they are capable for their next job. They’re always strategizing how to work on projects that will impress their next boss as much as their current one. They don’t rest on their laurels or pursue extraneous education. They just build up a laundry list of proof that shows they are ready to take things to the next level.5. They Make an ImpressionThe most successful people understand that, in order to get anywhere in office life, they have to build influence. This doesn’t mean backstabbing or politicking. It just means: comporting themselves with integrity, honesty, and professionalism. They build relationships with the people and institutions that can make a lasting difference in their careers.

EC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

EC - Essay Example The waste is collected on daily basis to the waste recycling site and the necessary recycling activities are carried out. There are a number of benefits that accrue from this recycling facility. For instance, some waste can be recycled to energy therefore, saving and utilizing energy efficiently. Additionally, the program rakes in 200 million pounds annually. The saving made is then invested in other important areas thus reducing the natural resource depletion. The program is also important in that it helps maintain the ecosystem of the institutions. There is no disposal of waste all over the compound which in turn helps maintain the ecosystem. Additionally, having recycling waste promote biodiversity as the environment is used safely giving a chance for the all the species to exist. Some species would be lost if the environment is polluted. Most importantly, waste management ensures there is no pollution of the environment. The waste is collected and assorted, therefore, reducing the chances of pollution. The theme about pollution and climate change has been trending in the last two decades. Integrating environmental good practices will make the institutional more competitive

Review #4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Review #4 - Essay Example The differences in the years B.C and the years A.D are documented in this chapter too. There is a further understanding that the domestication did not happen overnight, but it occurred over a long period with each year bringing something different from the previous years. The topics discussed in the study are of great significance because they document various instances of outstanding stages in the development of Agriculture. There are many comparisons of the differences recorded between the old and the new worlds. The different patterns in prehistory have been documented in this topic with direct reflection on different hypotheses that explain several situations of origins of agriculture, sedimentary communities, as well as domestications of different crops and animals. The topics cover differences in regards to these advancements with specific backgrounds to the measures that have been made in regards to developing more sophisticated tools for agricultural use, as well as the steps in the developments of certain crops like maize, wheat and beans. The studies incorporate the differences in terms of locations with the likes of Southwest Asia, Central America, Mesoamerica and South America. The critique of this text appears to be of a positive review because the text plays the intended role of documenting the various important scenarios in the platform of agricultural development. The text is educative and quite informative especially to an individual with deep interest on the journey that agriculture has travelled to reach what it is

Capitalism and Marxism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Capitalism and Marxism - Essay Example (Elson 1998, p. 53) In view of the Marxist globalization has been seen as an expansion or development of capitalism in the world. Like other traditional works that were seen to fit in a loose framework of anti-globalization, Marxism may not be described as a single movement nor can it be described as following a unitary intellectual practice from a theoretical perspective. In this case we should understand that Marxism as whole has been engaging with contemporary phenomena in a way that the manner and the mindsets that it has been postulating in the past has been evidence in class, political economy, labor, capitalism and in many other socialism concepts and revolution described as the central axis of globalization. (Ollman 1998, p.87) With the end of communism in Eastern Europe in the 1990s, and the consequent embrace of the capitalism like in the Peoples Republic of China, has been expressed as the end of the Marxism's period. Regardless of the fact that the world has embraced the capitalism economies, Marxism still present a poignant and painful way of accounting for globalization. This has been witnessed in what is happening in the aftermath of the wave that took the world from 1990s. Marxism has been expressed in many areas like the free-markets, oppressed and exploited labor, modernization, and many other reforms that have been carried out in the political, social and economic systems of the world. Globalization has been described as increased interaction of the world or the opening up the world. In the last few decades there has been increased movement of people and goods. There has been emergence of new market. Therefore globalization has been a tendency to create a unipolar world though it has been expressed mostly in economic terms. It is increased integration of the political, social and economic factors. (Beams, 19980 Marxism and globalization in view of capitalism Capitalism which was so much argued about by Marxism has been one of the most important pivots that have led to the wave of globalization. There have been increased movements of capital across borders leading to immense change in the way we do things and the way we produce things. Globalization therefore can be seen as a cosmopolitan character which signifies production and consumption in all countries. Globalization places the local and the national conditions in terms of self sufficiency and the creation of the universal system of interdependences. As capitalism takes over the world under the nose of globalization, it has led to smash the border of feudalism and mercantilism. Capitalism is therefore ever moving and ever-changing. It forces human being to change their reality and their own role in the world. (Fredrick 1975, p. 4) According to Marxism socialist revolution was described to occur out of development of the product forces which run into conflict with the social relations of capital. In this case Marx explains the negative effect that can be brought about by the forces of capitalism. Marx tried to show the creative-destructive forces of capitalism which is very well tied together with reason of economic advancement of the world. Therefore Marxism expressed that these creative destructive forces goes beyond history of establishment of the socialism society. One

Post Surgery Care for Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy

Post Surgery Care for Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Bianca Robinson CLINICAL SCENARIO: PERSON CENTRED CARE Introduction Patients who are undergoing operative procedures are required the delivery of ongoing care to optimize their recovery and prevent complications. This delivery of care will enable early identification of circumstances surrounding surgery that may put patients at risk of harm (Williams Hopper, 2011). Mr Timoti Whakaana is a 36 year old Polynesian male who has just returned to the ward after having a laparoscopic cholecystectomy; the surgical removal of the gall bladder in a process also known as keyhole surgery (Graham, 2008, p. 41). The aim of this report is to identify and prioritise the problems associated with in the first four hours of Mr Whakaana’s return back to the ward. This report presents the four highest problems, including nursing interventions and person centred care that may occur with Mr Whakaana on return to the ward from surgery. ABCDE ASSESSMENT Although different surgical procedures require specific and specialist nursing care, the principles of post-operative care remain the same. It is essential for a structured assessment of Mr Whakaana to be carried out such as that described by Thim, Krarup, Grove, Rohde Lofgren (2011) where Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability and Environment are examined. This is known as a primary assessment, and is used to identify any signs of airway obstruction, respiratory failure, circulatory failure or neurological dysfunction (Thim, Krarup, Grove, Rohde Lofgren, 2011, p. 117). The nurse must pay particular attention to Mr Whakaana’s airway due to his previous administration of morphine, as morphine is symptomatic of respiratory depression and should be monitored closely to prevent bradypnoea, a respiratory rate less than 12 breathes per minute (Tiziani, 2010, p. 645). Mr Whakaana’s conscious state should also be monitored especially as he is currently scored as 1 on the Glasgow Coma Scale, the nurse must pay particular attention to this to ensure that Mr Whakaana does not go into shock (Elliott, Aitken Chaboyer, 2007, p. 354). It is also helpful to include the patency of drainage systems and vascular devices into your primary assessment of Mr Whakaana, and note if any allergies are known (Elliott, Aitken Chaboyer, 2007, p. 354). Nursing Problem:Risk for aspiration related to reduced level of consciousness, depressed cough and gag reflex, impaired swallowing. Prior to surgical procedure, general anaesthesia is induced. This will relax the muscles of the body and depresses any sensation of pain, as a result the gag and swallowing reflex is temporarily suppressed and may lead to aspiration (Wright, 2011, p. 992). Person Centred Goal: After 1 hour of nursing interventions, Mr Whakaana will maintain safety and maintain homeostasis, and after 4 hours Mr Whakaana will demonstrate return of reflexes (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 20). Invention Rationale:The nurse will monitor and record vital signs for baseline data. The nurse will also assess Mr Whakaana’s condition to note any abnormalities, and noting the duration of anaesthetic medications will help assess the presence of the gag reflex (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 20). Maintaining a patent airway by suctioning may be necessary as airway obstruction will block ventilation (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 20). Evaluation: After 1 hour of nursing interventions, Mr Whakaana will maintain safety and maintain homeostasis, and after 4 hours Mr Whakaana will demonstrate return of reflexes (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 20). VITAL SIGNS / PAIN Vital signs should be assessed as often as possible (every half hour) during the few hours of Mr Whakaana’s return to the ward to determine any signs of deterioration (Crisp Taylor, 2008 p. 586). Vital sign measurements include blood pressure, respirations, pulse, temperature and oxygen saturation levels. Changes in Mr Whakaana’s blood pressure can be used to monitor changes in his cardiac output; pulse assessment can determine Mr Whakaana’s heart rate and rhythm, and can estimate the volume of blood being pumped by his heart (Crisp Taylor, 2008 p. 576). Core body temperature differences can occur in illnesses and an abnormal reading can be an indication of infection; Mr Whakaana’s temperature is 36.5C at present, which is within normal range (Crisp Taylor, 2008 p. 547). Pulse oximeters give a non-invasive estimate of the arterial haemoglobin oxygen saturation, and measurement should always be above 95% (Crisp Taylor, 2008, p. 573). When measuring the oxygen saturation, the nurse should be aware that Mr Whakaana is currently on 3L per minute of oxygen via nasal prongs, as this could give a false sense of security when recording/documenting Mr Whakaana’s oxygen saturation level (Elliott, Aitken Chaboyer, 2007 p.590). Mr Whakaana’s pain and discomfort are also important factors in the postoperative period as good pain control is required for an optimal recovery (Scott, 2008, p. 59). Mr Whakaana has reported his pain as 3/10 on movement. Self-reporting of pain can be influenced by numerous factors including mood affect, sleep disturbances and any medications that may result in a patient not reporting pain accurately (Scott, 2008, p. 59). For example, Mr Whakaana may not report his pain because of the effects of sedation or lethargy and reduced motivation as a consequence of the surgery therefore, assessment of Mr Whakaana must be undertaken at appropriately frequent intervals (Scott, 2008, p. 59). The nurse should administer analgesicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ©therapy as ordered, evaluatingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ©thenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ©modifyingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ©thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ©therapy according toà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ©Mr Whakaana’sà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ©response (Macintyre, Scott, Schug, Visser, Walker, 2010, p. 34). Mr Whakaana’s pain assessment must lead to changes in management and re-evaluation to ensure improvements in his quality of care. Nursing Problem:Risk of ineffective breathing pattern related to pain. Mr Whakaana’s respirations may increase as a result of pain or as an initial compensatory mechanism. However, increased work of breathing may indicate increasing oxygen and energy consumption or a reduced respiratory reserve (Scott, 2008, p.60). Person Centred Goal:After 4 hours of nursing intervention Mr Whakaana will establish an effective breathing pattern. Invention Rationale:The nurse will administer oxygen via nasal prongs as ordered, as this will maximize the available oxygen, especially while ventilation is reduced because of pain (Scott, 2008, p. 60). The nurse will also administer pain medications as ordered, to treat Mr Whakaana’s underlying cause of the respiratory problem. The nurse will monitor vital signs especially Mr Whakaana’s respiratory rate for baseline data, and encourage and assist with deep breathing and coughing exercises as appropriate to promote maximal ventilation and oxygen (Graham, 2008, p. 47). Monitoring for restlessness and changes in mental status is also needed, as this may indicate hypoxia (Scott, 2008, p.60). Evaluation:After 1 hour of nursing interventions, Mr Whakaana shall have demonstrated an improved breathing pattern after 4 hours of nursing interventions, Mr Whakaana shall have established an effective breathing pattern (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 241) FLUID BALANCE Post-operative patients are vulnerable to fluid and electrolyte imbalances due to many influences including blood loss, fasting and exposure during surgery (Williams Hopper,2011, p. 71). Therefore an accurate measurement of Mr Whakaana’s fluid balance is essential to evaluate his condition, this includes strict readings of his output of urine and any vomit, and the measurement of fluid intake orally or intravenously (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 387). The nurse should assess Mr Whakaana’s surgical wounds at regular intervals for excessive blood loss, as this may indicate haemorrhage (Williams Hopper,2011, p. 72). Other factors that should be taken into account include diarrhoea or sweating. Nursing Problem:Altered fluid and electrolyte imbalance – risk of fluid volume deficit related to restricted oral fluid intake before, during, and after surgery. Fluid volume deficit, or hypovolemia, occurs from a loss of body fluid or the shift of fluids into the third space, or from a reduced/restricted fluid intake (Williams Hopper,2011, p. 73). Person Centred Goal: Mr Whakaana will not experience fluid volume deficit, hypokalaemia or metabolic alkalosis as evidenced by normal skin turgor, moist mucous membranes, stable weight, blood pressure and pulse within normal range, capillary refill time less than 3 seconds, return of peristalsis within expected time, and a balanced intake and output within 48 hours after surgery (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 387). Invention Rationale:The nurse will assess for and report signs and symptoms of deficient fluid volume, hypokalaemia and metabolic alkalosis such as decreased skin turgor, dry mucous membranes, and weight loss of 2% or greater over a short period (Williams Hopper,2011, p. 73). The nurse must also monitor input/output measurements and administer fluid replacements as ordered to provide a baseline for fluid volume replacement as early recognition of signs and symptoms of fluid volume deficit and electrolyte imbalance allow for prompt intervention (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 387). Evaluation:Mr Whakaana will not experience fluid volume deficit as evidenced by normal skin turgor, capillary refill time less than 3 seconds, moist mucous membranes, and a stable weight (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 387). INFECTION /SEPSIS The skin is a natural barrier against infection, so any surgery that causes a break in the skin can lead to a postoperative infection (Brown Edwards, 2011, p. 275). Microorganisms can infect a surgical wound through various forms of contact, such as from the touch of a contaminated caregiver or surgical instrument, through microorganisms in the air, or through microorganisms that are already on or in your body and then spread into the wound (Brown Edwards, 2011, p. 513) Chronic diseases and other patient characteristics influence susceptibility to infection, such as diabetes, smoking, or prolonged preoperative hospital stays can increase Mr Whakaana’s risk of infection. Nursing Problem:Risk for infection, related to impaired primary defence. Mr Whakaana is at risk of acquiring infection due to the break in the continuity of the first line defence which is the skin; if there is a breakage in the skin, the pathogens will easily invade the body’s system thus increasing risk for infection (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 107). Person Centred Goal:After 4 hours of nursing interventions, Mr Whakaana will achieve timely wound healing, free of infection, and be afebrile (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 108). Invention Rationale:The nurse will monitor vital signs and assess Mr Whakaana’s condition to gather baseline data. The nurse will also stress proper hand washing techniques, as this is a first line defence against infection or cross contamination (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 108). The nurse will have a strict compliance to hospital control, sterilisation, and aseptic policies to prevent occurrence of infection. Evaluation:After 4 hours of nursing interventions, Mr Whakaana shall have achieved timely wound healing, be free of infection, and be afebrile (Gulanick Myers,2014, p. 108). OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Mr Whakaana has a past medical history of type 2 diabetes, and therefore he is associated with an increased risk for surgical procedures and increased postoperative morbidity (Diabetes Australia, 2010). Major surgical operations require a period of fasting during which oral anti-diabetic medications cannot be used, and the stress of surgery itself results in metabolic concerns that alter glucose homeostasis (Diabetes Australia, 2010).Persistent hyperglycaemia is a risk factor for postoperative sepsis andimpaired wound healing, so the management goal during Mr Whakaana’s post-operative period is to optimize metabolic control through close monitoring, adequate fluid and caloric repletion, and cautious use of insulin (Diabetes Australia, 2010). Conclusion Although postoperative care is a daily occurrence in nursing care, it is clear that the theories behind nursing actions are often forgotten in daily practice and these actions may not be prioritised as they should be (Crisp Taylor,2008, p. 1449). It is hoped that this report has enabled the reader to revisit the principles behind postoperative care. Such care must be viewed as a priority, and although there are local policies in place to guide nursing staff, the responsibility for understanding the reasons for actions lies with each individual practitioner (Crisp Taylor,2008, p. 1449). REFERENCES Brown,D., Edwards,H. (2011).Lewiss medical-surgical nursing: Assessment and management of clinical problems. Chatswood, N.S.W: Elsevier Australia. Crisp,J., Taylor,C. (2008).Potter Perrys fundamentals of nursing. Chatswood, N.S.W: Elsevier Australia. Diabetes Australia (2010).Hospital Stay / Surgery Procedures Diabetes Australia. Retrieved from http://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/NDSS-Content/Diabetes-Information-Sheets/Hospital-and-Surgery/ Elliott,D., Aitken,L.M., Chaboyer,W. (2007). Australian College of Critical Care Nurses ACCCNs critical care nursing. Sydney: Mosby Elsevier. Graham, L. (2008). Care of patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy.Nursing Standard,23(7), 41-8; quiz 50. Retrieved from http://0-search.proquest.com.alpha2.latrobe.edu.au/docview/219887551?accountid=12001 Gulanick,M., Myers,J.L. (2014).Nursing care plans: Diagnoses, interventions, and outcomes(8thed.). St. Louis, PA: Elsevier/Mosby. Macintyre,P.E., Scott,D.A., Schug,S.A., Visser,E.J., Walker,S.M. (2010).Acute Pain Management: Scientific Evidence. Canberra, ACT: National Health and Medical Research Council. Scott, L. (2008). Post-operative pain.Nursing Standard,22(31), 59-60. Retrieved from http://0search.proquest.com.alpha2.latrobe.edu.au/docview/219834220?accountid=12001 Thim, T., Krarup, N., Grove, E., Rohde, C., Lofgren, B. (2011). Initial assessment and treatment with the Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability, Exposure (ABCDE) approach.International Journal Of General Medicine,5, 117121. Tiziani, A. (2010). Havards nursing guide to drugs. Sydney, New South Wales: Mosby/Elsevier Australia. Williams,L.S., Hopper,P.D. (2011).Understanding medical surgical nursing. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis. Wright, K. D. (2011). Cholecystectomy. In L. J. Fundukian (Ed.), The Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 991-992). Detroit: Gale. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX1919600390v=2.1u=latrobeit=rp=GVRLsw=wasid=e5af97b40081994971c49abc50c8cb56 Page 1 of 10

”More Than Just the Disease” by Bernard McLaverty Essay

‘More Than Just the Disease’, written by Bernard McLaverty has one major character, Neil. The story is seen through his eyes and illustrates the problems that he has to deal with at this point in his life. Arguably the biggest problem Neil has in the story is his psoriasis, this is also a contributor to another of his problems, which is his huge lack of confidence, and it also contributes in a profound way to his insecurity. McLaverty has written the character of Neil Fry with many quite complex problems one of which is the astonishing influence Mrs Fry – Neil’s mother – has on him. He frequently hears her voice in his head commanding him, telling him how he should act, what he should do in certain situations and how to feel on certain matters. This occurs when Neil is having breakfast with Michael’s family. His mother, without being present, tells him that he should, â€Å"Close his mouth when he is eating† she goes on to say, â€Å"Others have to live with you Neil.† He hears her again when he is unpacking after arriving at Michael’s holiday home. She says â€Å"Be tidy at all times and then no one can surprise you†. I could go on for pages listing more and more instances of this but I won’t get any marks for doing that! I regress. Although Mrs Fry means absolutely no harm, in fact quite the opposite, when implanting these views, ideas and reactions into Neil’s head, she is actually contributing to many of Neil’s problems: such as his lack of confidence, his ignorance and his insecurity. Neil finds, when he goes to stay with Michael on the coast, that his mother is entirely wrong about the middle classes and how they live and behave. He finds contrary to his expectations that they do not fit the stereotype, they are not ‘posh’ but in fact they are reasonably laid back. Neil is very insecure possibly, again, owing to his mother’s domination over him and because â€Å"Neil kept hearing his mother’s voice† A good example of this is him going to the bathroom to put on his pyjamas and buttoning the jacket right up to the neck, whereas Michael while â€Å"bending his arms and flexing his biceps† announces proudly; â€Å"I only wear pyjama bottoms†. This, as well as illustrating Neil’s insecurity, also is a good illustration of Neil’s massive under confidence and Michael’s abundance of it. Neil lives in a very sheltered world and does not know a lot about the world beyond his home and school life. This is evident in one instance in particular; when Neil is making an excuse for not going swimming to hide his psoriasis he says, â€Å"The fact is†¦I’ve got my period.† Mrs Wan helps Neil with his lack of confidence. She is a duchess and owns the house in which Michael and his family stay throughout the summer. While doing this she lives in a dirty caravan at the bottom of the garden with her â€Å"millions† of cats. Mrs Wan proves another one of Mrs Fry’s stereotypes is utter nonsense, she does not dress as expected – not at all glamorously – but does not seem to be interested in her appearance in the slightest. McLaverty describes her as being, â€Å"An old woman in a bottle green cardigan and baggy mouse coloured trousers and†¦a pair of men’s leather gloves.† She is a complete contrast to Mrs Fry who likes to be â€Å"tidy at all times† and â€Å"cannot abide milk bottles at the table†. If, with no background information you were asked to choose the duchess between the two of them it is most likely that Mrs Fry would be the one chosen. Mrs Wan, although only meeting Neil briefly, has a large influence on him, which is rather more positive than that of his mother’s. She listens to his and seems interested in his opinions’ and experiences’. Most importantly, however, she gives him confidence, the confidence to reveal his psoriasis instead of making excuses to get out of going swimming. She shares her experience of lepers with him this also helps him and boosts his confidence in a big way. The end of the story illustrates very well how Mrs Wan’s advice affects Neil. The closing scene could be taken as a symbol for life. Neil because of his under confidence dabbles in the shallows nervously, meanwhile Michael is out in the deep riding the waves and happily accepting all the challenges thrown at him by the sea knowing he will succeed. The story teaches Neil a lot. He is taught to move out with his mother’s domination. Not to worry too much about how other people perceive him and that he should not be at all afraid of revealing his psoriasis, not keeping it hidden. He has nothing to be ashamed of and therefore he should not hide away or dabble in the shadows but be sure of himself, confident enough to do what he thinks best not what his mother – often wrongly – thinks he should do, to be his own person and not a clone of his mother.

The Epidemic Of Heroin Health And Social Care Essay

Because of the huge handiness of drugs and its impact on many aspects of health care and the economic system, it is imperative that wellness attention suppliers and policy shapers understand what drugs are being abused, who uses these drugs, where the drugs come from, and the wellness and economic load on the United States. It is going extremely of import for those straight involved with substance maltreaters to understand the physiological effects, psychosocial effects and backdown effects of drugs. Opiates and opiate derived functions in peculiar, whether illicit ( such as diacetylmorphine ) or prescription ( such as Oxycontin ) are being to a great extent abused across the state. These drugs can hold serious wellness deductions during usage and during disconnected surcease ( detoxification or backdown ) . This paper will show a reappraisal of the literature on the epidemic of diacetylmorphine and prescription opiate maltreatment. Through a critical reappraisal, constructs such as the prevalence of the job, the physiologic effects of maltreatment, the current tendencies in direction of the job and deductions for nursing and health care will be explored.BackgroundBefore proceeding, it is of import to briefly discourse the basic pharmacological medicine of opiate drugs. Opiates, otherwise known as narcotics, include the drugs diacetylmorphine, morphia, codeine, oxycontin, hydrocodone, dolophine hydrochloride and other chemically-related derived functions. All opiates are considered dispensable merely by prescription in the United States with the exclusion of diacetylmorphine, which is illegal in all fortunes. Opiates wield their effects by triping pleasance centres in the encephalon. The neurobiochemical theoretical account of dependence suggests that over clip, the encephalon ‘s c hemical science alterations so that it yearns for the substance when it is non at that place and can bring forth physiologic effects of backdown when stopped. Heroin for illustration, which is chemically-related to morphine ( the chemical name for diacetylmorphine is diamorphine ) readily crosses the blood-brain barrier to do a rapid spilling of Dopastat into the dopaminergic receptors of the encephalon ‘s nerve cells. For this ground, the drug is easy habit-forming and absence of the drug causes a esthesis of hungering and can do feelings of unwellness, such as sickness and diarrhoea, when stopped suddenly. .Prevalence of the ProblemSeveral research workers in the nursing, allied wellness and economic sciences subjects have explored and discussed the prevalence of prescription opiate maltreatment and hypotheses of the beginning of the job. However, there is a big spread in the literature related to the prevalence of illicit drug maltreatment ( diacetylmorphine ) among differe nt populations. The prevalence informations for diacetylmorphine maltreatment in the US is mostly reported by national study tendencies, such as the National Institute of Drug Abuse ( portion of the National Institutes of Health ) Survey on Drug Use and Health ( NSDUH ) . Even so, the monolithic study papers pays small attending to the job of diacetylmorphine maltreatment and studies merely two per centum of the 67,500 study respondents utilizing diacetylmorphine in the month predating the study ( National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2009 ) . The etiology of prescription drug abuse and maltreatment is discussed more to a great extent in the literature than is heroin maltreatment. Harmonizing to the NSDUH, in 2009 4.8 % of the study respondents aged 12 and older reported utilizing prescription opiates for non-medical grounds. Of those, over 55 % reported obtaining the drug for free from a friend or comparative, and 4.8 % reported buying the drug from a trader on the streets ( National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2009 ) . Research workers at Columbia University surveyed striplings aged 12 to 17 in 2005 and found that 9.3 % reported the abuse of prescription opiates over the past month. In researching the striplings ‘ motivations for maltreatment, the research workers found that the most normally reported motivations were easiness of attainment and affordability. Among immature grownup college pupils, prevalence of non-medical prescription opiate maltreatment has been reported between seven and nine per centum in the past month to twelve to fourteen per centum life-time prevalence. One of the most at-risk groups for abuse of and dependence to prescription opiates is the chronic hurting population. When used suitably, opiate hurting medicines are a gilded criterion of attention for serious pain-related conditions ( such as post-operative hurting, neuropathic hurting and so on ) . In an attempt to better manage hurting, the figure of prescriptions for opiate medicines increased 154 % in the ten-year period from 1992 to 2002, even though the population of the United States increased by merely 13 % . Although prescription opiates have been used to handle hurting and better the quality of life among acute and chronic hurting patients, the coming of the drugs ‘ abuse has led to a broad organic structure of literature on normative patterns and monitoring of opiate drugs. There delicate balance between pull offing hurting adequately and the hazard for abuse, dependence and recreation has been discussed in the literature late, mostly among the adolescent/young grownup and chronic hurting populations. Although there is a general deficiency in the literature of the figure of people prescribed opiates for chronic hurting. There is a big organic structure of literature which suggests that the increased figure of prescription opiates for chronic hurting patients has contributed significantly to the drug maltreatment job. In surveies to look into the usage of prescription opiates for chronic hurting, it has been found that hurting intervention programs are thin, good certification on the patient ‘s wellness history and history of substance maltreatment is rare, and opiates are sometimes improperly utilised or non indicated at all.Health Consequences of Opiate AbuseBoth prescription and illicit opiates have the possible to exercise a myriad of ague and chronic negative wellness effects for the user. Neurological diminution, vision alterations, cardiac abnormalcies, vascular complications, pneumonic upsets and mortality have been studied and reported. In a survey of over 500 opiate nuts, electrocardiographic alterations were documented in 61 % of the sample. These ECG alterations included ST-segment lift, which may bespeak ischaemic bosom harm ( or deficiency of oxygen-rich blood to the myocardium ) and QTc protraction ( seen largely with dolophine hydrochloride nuts ) . Prolonged QTc intervals may take to inappropriate triggering of the ventricles and may take to potentially deadly ventricular tachycardia. The usage of diacetylmorphine and other drugs by injection with non-sterile or reused acerate leafs may bring forth powerful toxins in the blood stream taking to endocarditis, left ventricular bleeding and decease. Research workers in Ireland reviewed the autopsy findings from eight instances of diacetylmorphine users and found rapid fatal unwellness caused by the endotoxin Clostridium novyi which caused fatal subendocardial bleeding, spleen expansion and pneumonic hydrops in all of the topics studied. Heroin can do important acute peripheral and cardinal nervous system complications such as neuropathy and hearing loss. In a survey six of endovenous and intranasal diacetylmorphine users admitted to the infirmary for acute unwellness, five had documented rhabdomyolysis between three and 36 hours after disposal of the drug. In each of the five instances, there was no documented injury. Typically rhabdomyolysis occurs after a traumatic, compression-type hurt where enzymes slop into the muscular structure and cause rapid neurological diminution, loss of musculus tone and coma. In each of the topics studied, no injury or compaction hurt occurred. In a group of patients with a reported history of â€Å" speedballing † ( or blending diacetylmorphine and cocaine ) , 2 of the 16 studied experient sudden, bilateral sensorineural hearing loss four hours after â€Å" speedballing † which resolved within three yearss. One extra participant experienced sudden hearing loss after â⠂¬Å" speedballing † but one-sidedly. The mechanism by which the hearing loss occurred was described as a possible cochlear toxicity or autoimmune reaction related straight to the drugs. Injection of drugs of any type can do vascular complications, tegument and soft tissue infections and infective diseases such as hepatitis and HIV. In the most terrible instances, opiate maltreatment may take to decease, by and large from overdose. Heroin has been related to 1.65 deceases per 100,000 people in the Florida population entirely over the last decennary and in Alabama between 1986 and 2003, a reappraisal of medical tester ‘s studies revealed those who ‘s cause of sudden decease was undermined were 5.3 times more likely to hold a history of drug maltreatment. Research workers in the United Kingdom have farther investigated heroin deceases and concluded that overdose related to heroin seldom occurs after the usage of heroin alone- in 50 % of the instances they reviewed, intoxicant was besides involved. Although surveies have been published on the wellness effects of maltreatment itself, a reappraisal of nursing, medical and allied wellness literature shows a important deficiency of surveies on the wellness effects of backdown ( disconnected surcease ) of opiate drugs. Several surveies have been found associating to the usage of pharmacotherapy to handle opiate dependence ( such as dolophine hydrochloride and similar plans ) but no surveies have explored the physiologic effects of backdown without medicine aid. Searching on-line databases for relevant articles on opiate backdown does non give any surveies other than those utilizing medication-assisted backdown therapies ( such as dolophine hydrochloride and buprenorphine ) . This is of import to populations such as inmates in a correctional installation where pharmacotherapy is non by and large used during detoxification and requires farther attending. In amount, the possible health-related effects of opiate maltreatment can negatively impact a myriad of organic structure systems. The hazard of potentially fatal infective disease, neurological and cardiovascular complications and decease by overdose creates a public wellness job that demands attending. Health attention suppliers in all spheres must be able to quickly and suitably place those at hazard.Deductions for Advanced Nursing PracticeNurse practicians are allowed normative authorization in about any province across the state. Depending on the pattern scene, they may order opiates to handle hurting. Opiates are the gilded criterion for handling moderate to severe hurting in both ague and chronic hurting syndromes. There has been some discourse in the literature on the quandary to handle or non to handle hurting with opiates. On the one manus, effectual hurting direction is non merely ethical but besides opiates are effectual for many patients for hurting direction – an d on the other manus there is a fright of abuse, dependance and dependence issues. The ability for advanced pattern nurses to place drug-seeking behaviour, issues with dependence and possible recreation of opiates is important to the job of opiate maltreatment. As it has been documented in the literature, recreation of prescription opiates by and large occurs with the patient merchandising, trading or giving away the medicine to another. Harmonizing to Annie Gerhardt, exigency room nurse practician, â€Å" drug searchers become victims of their ain disease † , going involved in a tangled web of dependence, drug-seeking, drug recreation and condemnable behaviour that escalates over clip with increased drug usage. Gerhardt ( 2004 ) suggests supervising patients treated with opiates for replenishing Master of Educations before their follow up assignments, patient studies of â€Å" losing † medicines, trying to see different suppliers for hurting medicines ( which can norm ally be identified by pharmaceuticss ) , and â€Å" scamming † suppliers for more medicines by congratulating the supplier or the office staff or displaying increased degrees of hurting in order to secure more medicine. When ordering opiates to handle hurting in patients already known to hold dependence issues, utilizing sustained-released preparations may cut down dependence while adequately handling hurting. Sustained-release preparations normally have a reduced street value and are less likely to be sold and diverted, and the backdown from sustained-release opiates is typically non as terrible. In footings of advanced pattern nursing, prescribers have the alone ability to screen for possible dependence issues, monitor those who are prescribed habit-forming medicines and potentially control recreation of those medicines to others for whom they are non prescribed. Ultimately, the cognition of drugs of maltreatment and health-related effects is of import for nurses at all degrees to possess.Deductions for ResearchTo further add to the organic structure of literature on the topic of opiate drug maltreatment, dependence and backdown, several countries still need to be explored. First, forms of drug usage in single populations and communities should be investigated. The types of drugs most normally used, the paths of disposal of these drugs and their negative health-related effects should be studied in a assortment of communities, both urban and rural, to derive a better apprehension of the forms of usage across the state. More research is needed beyond simple prevalence surveies on the figure of people who use to spread out on the existent forms of maltreatment. Similarly, the psychosocial effect of drug usage across different populations needs farther probe in order to joint the negative impact on persons and communities. Because the disconnected surcease of opiate drugs without medicine aid occurs often in specific scenes, more research needs to be done on the physiological effects of non-assisted detoxification. The forms of symptoms of backdown and negative wellness effects among populations such as the incarcerated and the hospitalized demand to be explored. The potency for the development of evidence-based protocols for the direction of maltreatment and backdown in these scenes can happen one time the forms of symptoms and wellness effects are documented.DecisionIn amount, the job of drug maltreatment ( which extends far beyond even opiate drugs ) has been reported in multiple beginnings, and prevalence surveies seem rampant in the literature. However, much more work demands to be done on the effects of drug maltreatment from a health care position across a assortment of populations in different scenes to get down to understand the impact of drugs on communities.

Understanding Cardinal Numbers in Latin

Understanding Cardinal Numbers in Latin Latin numbers are usually adjectives. When there are three forms, the Latin number has a masculine, feminine, and neuter form, in that order. The numbers follow the appropriate declension rules. Note that there is no singular form for most of the numbers and no plural form for the number 1. Numbers 1 - unus, una, unum 2 - duo, duae, duo 3 - tres, tres, tria 4 - quattuor 5 - quinque 6 - sex 7 - septem 8 - octo 9 - novem 10 - decem 11 - undecim 12 - duodecim 13 - tredecim 14 - quattuordecim 15 - quindecim 16 - sedecim 17 - septendecim 18 - duodeviginti 19 - undeviginti 20 - viginti 21 - viginti unus 30 - triginta 40 - quadraginta 50 - quinquaginta 60 - sexaginta 70 - septuaginta 80 - octoginta 90 - nonaginta 100 - centum 200 - ducenti, ducentae, ducenta 300 - trecenti, trecentae, trecenta 400 - quadrigenti, quadrigentae, quadrigenta(*) 500 - quingenti, quingentae, quingenta 600 - sescenti, sescentae, sescenta 700 - septingenti, septingentae, septingenta 800 - octingenti, octingentae, octingenta 900 - nongenti, nongentae, nongenta 1000 - mille 2000 - duo milia Counting Numbers Eng Latin French Italian Spanish 1 one unus un uno uno 2 two duo deux due dos 3 three tres trois tre tres 4 four quattuor quatre quattro cuatro 5 five quinque cinq cinque cinco 6 six sex six sei seis 7 seven septem sept sette siete 8 eight octo huit otto ocho 9 nine novem neuf nove nueve 10 ten decem dix dieci diez

Montana 1948 essays

Montana 1948 essays Good morning, Larissa, Brooke and myself are here to discuss the racial prejudices of the novel Montana. Racial prejudice, a decision or act made on the grounds of a bias opinion on physical or religious grounds. Which means that when a person makes a decision and he or she does so on the basis of some ones colour, race or religion they are being racially prejudice. Wes is a prominent character in the novel, who is trying to make a decision between family loyalty and the loyalty of his job. Even though he is the sheriff, he still has his racial prejudices. Wes does not believe in the Indians medicine man and so he disregards there form of treatment asking David What does she need a medicine man? Wes is a man who held Indians in low regard as David tells us .he believed that Indians with few exceptions were lazy ignorant superstitious and irresponsible and then forbids David to wear moccasins because he believes that David will become as flat footed and lazy as the Indians. It is not made clear wether Wes or Gail his wife made the decision to give Marie the room on the ground floor rather than the room up stairs. David also ponders this decision, who decided that room should not be Maries. Wes is a man who likes to keep everything in their right places servants come under the family not as equals on the same level. Wes also doesnt want t o hear what Gail is saying about his brother for two reasons one because it puts him into a very awkward position and two he doesnt believe what these Indian girls are saying. He says an examination by a doctor... maybe she doesnt know whats supposed to go on. Wes doesnt believe what is said until it is spelt out to him, he believes that it is in there imagination; they are ignorant people so why would they know what is meant to be going on in a doctors examinati ...

Discuss the ways in which individuals and communities demonstrate Essay

Discuss the ways in which individuals and communities demonstrate agency in their lives - Essay Example Agency facilitates the way the individual’s negotiates their lifestyle particularly through interpersonal dialogues. Some may however not use interpersonal dialogues but settle on constructing their lives â€Å"spaces† individually, and avoiding linguistic interactions and interpersonal dialogues entirely. Nevertheless, it is vital to note that individual’s demonstration of agency later on forms the building blocks of a community. This is because individuals are community agents since they express their thoughts on cultural matters to other people. Through agency, people are able to carry out face-to-face conversations with people from other communities. This has an impact on either side of the communities since culture is a negotiated meaning (Gutman 5). Being a negotiated meaning, a cultural forum in which the culture is negotiated and re-negotiated is what makes and remakes the culture and the community. This therefore supports the earlier argument that throug h agency, individuals are not passive recipients of community outcomes. Through agency, individuals are able to engage in cultural construction (Gutman 6). Another demonstration of agency is seen in babies. ... This could also mean that the adults from the children could also be the same. Children therefore exploit the meaning they derive from the pre- existing culture to build their own understanding of the world that later on helps them or destroys them as adults. Based on this argument, it is evident that agency plays a vital role in shaping up the future of individuals. For instance, if an individual is given to express his/her opinion of an event, the person will be treated by the other based on the opinion. There is also a probability that the individual may influence others in the process. The opinion may have been constructed from the way the individual views the society from his/her own small world. Agency also influences personal behavior among individuals. The various changes in personal behavior evolve with time and it determines the way people respond to different circumstances. The changes in individual behavior lead to changes in the culture of a society. Some individuals vie w them as suggestions meaning they can be ignored, circumvented or disregarded (Gutman, 6). Through agency, cultural influences have no power over individuals unless they allow them to have power over them. Gutman (7) concluded that the depiction he had of Mexican men was wrong. This is because what he saw was different from what he had the society expected of Mexican men i.e. the men were hard drinkers and philandering macho men. This therefore shows that the men had evolved and developed their own views and goals different from the overall depiction of community as seen by outsiders. The limiting factor in the argument above is the lack of empirical data to measure the extent of ignoring or circumventing the cultural influences in the above case. Furthermore, the

Personal achievement or talent essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal achievement or talent - Essay Example The most important effect of these values is good leadership, the core foundation of scouting, which has given me the knowledge and ability to lead my peers. Leadership is not just about telling people what to do, but about guiding teammates with positive attitudes, regardless of whether the situation is a sporting game or everyday life. I have already applied these leadership skills within my high school baseball teams and when working summer jobs. The importance of leadership and teamwork were impressed on my from the beginning of my scouting days. Through hard work and dedication to my troop, I became one of the youngest Patrol leaders at age thirteen. This position came with many responsibilities. I experienced having to provide meals for an entire patrol and their dads at the monthly campouts. The tricky part about cooking in the wilderness is you do not have the same equipment you may find in a kitchen. Additionally, no processed meals are allowed at the campouts; everything is made from scratch. The entire meal is a process, from finding firewood to preparing the uncooked food. In other words, cooking is a group endeavor. As patrol leader, I assigned younger and older scouts to do the various tasks, and ensured everyone worked together. I had to learn quickly how to lead, or my patrol would have failed and broken down. In 2009, I became an Assistant Scoutmaster, the last position a Scout must hold before he can transition from a Life Scout to an Eagle Scout. In this position, my leadership duties grew. Instead of just one small patrol, I was put in charge of approximately two hundred people at a summer camp. I had to oversee various activities, not just cooking, and make sure everybody got along. One of the other great things Scouts taught me is the necessity and beauty of diversity. In this large number of people, there were boys of many different races and with many different religions. Learning how

Love in A Rose For Emily by William Faulkner Essay

Love in A Rose For Emily by William Faulkner - Essay Example In â€Å"A Rose for Emily,† William Faulkner has portrayed the fact that the way in which an individual loves and expresses her love is dependent upon the way that he has been socially trained and brought up. Emily Grierson was raised by her father as her mother had passed away. He isolated her from the society and the people of their town. He brought her up in his own way. He was a proud man who believed that he was superior to all the men in the town and did not interact and socialize much with them. He instilled these qualities of arrogance and proudness in his daughter as well. Such was his thought of superiority that he turned down all the proposals that came for Emily. This is explained by Faulkner when he writes, â€Å"People in our town, remembering how old lady Wyatt, her great-aunt, had gone completely crazy at last, believed that the Griersons held themselves a little too high for what they really were. None of the young men were quite good enough for Miss Emily an d such.† This environment in which Emily was brought up affected her emotions and the way in which she expressed her emotions of love. She was proud and lived her life as per her own rules. When the city authorities came to her house, â€Å"She did not ask them to sit. ... She says, "I received a paper, yes," Miss Emily said. "Perhaps he considers himself the sheriff. . . . I have no taxes in Jefferson." This quality of considering herself to be superior above the other figures in the town was given to her by her father and she did consider the people of the town to be of importance in front of her. Emily was greatly attached to her father and his loss shattered her. She deeply loved him but her detachment from the society and her limited social environment prevented her from expressing her love for her father in a proper way. When the people from the town came to share her grief following her father’s death, â€Å"She told them that her father was not dead. She did that for three days, with the ministers calling on her, and the doctors, trying to persuade her to let them dispose of the body.† She did not allow the burial of her father and it was through forceful means that she finally gave in and allowed for his burial after three days. She wanted to be with her father and it was difficult for her to accept the fact that the person that she loved was no more with her. Emily did love her father but she was unaware of social norms and the ways in which she was supposed to communicate her love. Every individual wishes to keep their loved one safe and wants to be with the person that they love. It is through the experiences in the life of a person that he learns when it is truly the time to let go of your loved one. Emily loved but she lacked these qualities of showing her love and it was because of this that she could not understand the fact that her father was dead and she had to let go of him. Like

The turning point of historys great events Essay Example for Free

The turning point of historys great events Essay History is full of incidences which have altered its course. One such incident that has altered the course of present politics and possibly the course of international politics and international law is the horrendous act of terrorism of 9/11. In its wake the incident has left consequences that are still affecting the course of politics and international laws. United States actions against Iraq, Afghanistan and even its relation with the country of Western Europe have been affected in the aftermath of 9/11.   It seemed that United States identified Iraq as a potential threat to its policies in the Middle East and promoter of terrorism and despite UN resollution chose to go it alone and used a new doctrine of pre-emptive attack to what it saw as a potential threat from weapons of mass destruction (WMD) stockpiled by Iraq. Unfortunately no WMD were found in Iraq but the doctrine of pre-emptive strike will be cited by many governments to attack their weaker neighbors. Israel was the only country to have used this doctrine to attack Iraqi under construction nuclear power plant. The United Nations and United States had condemned Israel for this action. The War on Terrorism also created dilemmas for International law as United States refused to recognize Taliban [Borelli, 2005]   and Al-Qaeda suspects as Prisoners of War[1] (POW) and classified them as Illegal combatant[2] denying them status of both common criminal and POWs creating problems such as Guantanamo Bay, CIA interrogation Centers and legal status of prisoners.. This has created a problem for the International law[3] and also a precedent for many other countries to cite in defense of their own illegal activities. The racial profiling and early version of Patriot Act once again discriminated between different type of US citizens, authorizing illegal wire tapping and invasion of privacy of law abiding Arab Americans which made the people recall Japanese internment during the Second World War. The attack on the World Trade Center had won United States worldwide sympathy and this opportunity could have been used to strengthen international laws against terrorism. The US government actions have alienated many of our traditional allies in Europe. The world is still not free of terrorism and the coalition of willing formed in the wake of 9/11 has not yet achieved its objectives. The United States citizens and Congress which gave almost a unanimous support to war on terrorism and War in Iraq now find that they have been misled by the government and have said so with their votes in the Congressional elections. It seems that the incident of 9/11 which had won us worldwide sympathy and desire to act against terrorism has resulted in a much divided and threatened world due to our actions since 9/11. One thing is certain; the incident of 9/11 has altered the course of the history. The new system will hopefully give more importance to international bodies and international laws [Gasser, 2002] to resolve dispute and the threats posed by terrorism. Alternatively, the consequences could further divide the world and may even create wider conflict in the Middle East and even more problems for the world peace. Bibliography Borelli, S. Legal Black Hole, retrieved from Internet on 27 February 2007 http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/review-857-p39/$File/irrc_857_Borelli.pdf Gasser, H., Acts of Terror, Terrorism and International law, ICRC, September 2002, Vol. 84, No 847, http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/5FLCCX/$File/irrc_847_Gasser.pdf [1] George W. Bush, Memorandum on ‘Humane treatment of Taliban and al-Qaeda detainees ’, 7 February 2002, available at http://pegc.no-ip.info/archive/White_House/bush_memo_20020207_ed.pdf [2] Secretary of Defense, News Briefing, 11 January 2002,available at http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Jan2002/briefings.html [3] According to news reports, shortly after the attacks of 11 September the President of the United States signed a secret order authorizing the CIA to set up a network of secret detention and interrogation centers outside the United States where high value prisoners could be subjected to interrogation tactics, which would be prohibited under US law. The US government negotiated â€Å"status of forces †agreements with several foreign governments allowing the US to set up CIA-run interrogation facilities and granting immunity to US personnel and private contractors; Ref: J. Barry, M. Hirsh and M. Isiko. â€Å"The roots of torture †, Newsweek, 24 May 2004;

A Midsummer Night’s Dream Essay: The Character of Bottom

The Character of Bottom in A Midsummer Night’s Dream The character of Bottom in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream is frequently foolish, but he is not a fool. His exuberance and energy are allied to practicality and resourcefulness, with an alarming lack of self-consciousness. He, at any rate, is not at all tongue-tied before the duke, as Theseus has known others to be. We do laugh at Bottom in many situations, but should note that these are situations in which any man might seem ridiculous: amateur theatricals are almost a byword for unintended comedy, whether in planning (1.2) rehearsal (3.1) or performance (5.1); any artisan afflicted with an ass's head and appetites, and beloved of the fairy queen would have difficulty retaining his dignity. It is true that Bottom by his ambitious speech, his ignorance of music and poetry, and his homely outlook is even more comic than most men in these situations, however. Bottom is, we presume, competent at his craft, and is respected by his fellows. In their view only Bottom can carry off the demanding r"le of Pyramus. They admire his presence, panache and vocal power. Theseus's comment on his "passion" may suggest some exaggeration in the playing, and this would be in keeping with Bottom's character, but we need not suppose the lines are badly-spoken, so much as badly-written. "He that writ it" attracts the most censure from Theseus. It is difficult to see how, given these lines, Bottom could be anything but comic in the performance of the play. And Shakespeare has already indicated that "hard-handed men" who have "never laboured in their minds till now" cannot be expected to perform competently. Theatre should be left to professionals (Bottom would not expect an actor to be ... ...haracteristics, but in the incongruity of this "mortal grossness", the grotesque, earthy and plain-speaking Bottom, and the beautiful, airy, eloquent and possibly dangerous fairy queen. The "bank whereon the wild thyme blows" and the beautiful fairy song "Philomel with lullaby", as well as the dainty morsels offered by Titania's servants - it is difficult to imagine a more alien creature to all this, than Bottom. We laugh at his ineptitude, at the incongruity of the situation, at the blatant illustration of the gulf between "reason and love"; we are disturbed by the indignity Titania undergoes, alarmed by the danger Bottom may be in, but reassured by his taking it in his stride. Bottom is a comic counterpart to Theseus and to Oberon: the natural leader in his own world, to whom others defer. And when he encounters their worlds he more than holds his own. A Midsummer Night’s Dream Essay: The Character of Bottom The Character of Bottom in A Midsummer Night’s Dream The character of Bottom in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream is frequently foolish, but he is not a fool. His exuberance and energy are allied to practicality and resourcefulness, with an alarming lack of self-consciousness. He, at any rate, is not at all tongue-tied before the duke, as Theseus has known others to be. We do laugh at Bottom in many situations, but should note that these are situations in which any man might seem ridiculous: amateur theatricals are almost a byword for unintended comedy, whether in planning (1.2) rehearsal (3.1) or performance (5.1); any artisan afflicted with an ass's head and appetites, and beloved of the fairy queen would have difficulty retaining his dignity. It is true that Bottom by his ambitious speech, his ignorance of music and poetry, and his homely outlook is even more comic than most men in these situations, however. Bottom is, we presume, competent at his craft, and is respected by his fellows. In their view only Bottom can carry off the demanding r"le of Pyramus. They admire his presence, panache and vocal power. Theseus's comment on his "passion" may suggest some exaggeration in the playing, and this would be in keeping with Bottom's character, but we need not suppose the lines are badly-spoken, so much as badly-written. "He that writ it" attracts the most censure from Theseus. It is difficult to see how, given these lines, Bottom could be anything but comic in the performance of the play. And Shakespeare has already indicated that "hard-handed men" who have "never laboured in their minds till now" cannot be expected to perform competently. Theatre should be left to professionals (Bottom would not expect an actor to be ... ...haracteristics, but in the incongruity of this "mortal grossness", the grotesque, earthy and plain-speaking Bottom, and the beautiful, airy, eloquent and possibly dangerous fairy queen. The "bank whereon the wild thyme blows" and the beautiful fairy song "Philomel with lullaby", as well as the dainty morsels offered by Titania's servants - it is difficult to imagine a more alien creature to all this, than Bottom. We laugh at his ineptitude, at the incongruity of the situation, at the blatant illustration of the gulf between "reason and love"; we are disturbed by the indignity Titania undergoes, alarmed by the danger Bottom may be in, but reassured by his taking it in his stride. Bottom is a comic counterpart to Theseus and to Oberon: the natural leader in his own world, to whom others defer. And when he encounters their worlds he more than holds his own.

Abusive Supervisory Reactions to Coworker Relationship Conflict

The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect The Leadership Quarterly j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / l e a q u a Abusive supervisory reactions to coworker relationship con? ict Kenneth J. Harris a,? , Paul Harvey b, K. Michele Kacmar cIndiana University Southeast, School of Business, 4201 Grant Line Road, New Albany, IN 47150, USA Management Department, Whittemore School of Business and Economics, University of New Hampshire, USA Department of Management and Marketing, Culverhouse College of Commerce and Business Administration, 143 Alston Hall, Box 870225, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama 35487-0225, USA b c a a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t This study extends research on abusive supervision by exploring how supervisor reports of conflict with their coworkers are related to abusive behaviors and resulting outcomes.We utilize research on displaced aggression, conflict, a nd leader–member exchange (LMX) theory to formulate our hypotheses. Results from two samples of 121 and 134 matched supervisor– subordinate dyads support the idea that supervisors experiencing coworker relationship conflict are likely to engage in abusive behaviors directed toward their subordinates and that LMX quality moderates this relationship. Additionally, abusive supervision was associated with decreased work effort and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB).Results also indicate that in both samples abusive supervision mediates the relationships between supervisor reports of coworker relationship conflict and OCB, and in one sample mediates the association between supervisor-reported coworker relationship conflict and work effort.  © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Available online 10 August 2011 Keywords: Abusive supervision Coworker relationship con? ict Multi-level 1. Introduction Abusive supervision, or the prolonged hostile treatment of subor dinates, has been recognized as a signi? ant threat to employee well being and productivity in both the popular press (e. g. , Elmer, 2006) and in organizational research (e. g. , Duffy, Ganster, & Pagon, 2002; Harris, Kacmar, & Zivnuska, 2007; Harvey, Stoner, Hochwarter, & Kacmar, 2007; Hoobler & Brass, 2006; Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007; Tepper, 2000, 2007; Tepper, Duffy, & Shaw, 2001; Zellars, Tepper, & Duffy, 2002). Behaviors that fall under the umbrella of abusive supervision, such as sabotaging, yelling at, or ignoring subordinates, have been linked to an array of negative consequences (see Tepper, 2007 for an overview).Research also suggests that these forms of abuse are alarmingly common in modern organizations (Namie & Namie, 2000; Tepper, 2007). The purpose of this study is to develop and test a conceptual model that expands our knowledge of antecedents, moderators, and consequences of abusive supervision. We also build on past research showing that supervisors' relationship c on? icts can â€Å"trickle down† to subordinates in the form of abusive behaviors (Aryee, Chen, Sun, & Debrah, 2007). Speci? cally, we test the notion that supervisors who experience relationship con? ct, de? ned as interpersonal â€Å"tension, animosity, and annoyance† (Jehn, 1995, p. 258), with their coworkers respond by abusing subordinates. The proposed relationship between supervisor-level coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision is rooted in the notion of displaced aggression, which occurs when the reaction to an unpleasant outcome or behavior from one source is redirected to a second source (Miller, Pedersen, Earlywine, & Pollock, 2003; Tedeschi & Norman, 1985).Consistent with Tepper (2007), we argue that the relatively weak retaliatory power of subordinates, as compared to coworkers, increases the likelihood that relationship con? ict-driven frustration will be vented at subordinates. We qualify this assumption, however, by arguing that supervisor s who experience coworker relationship con? ict will not behave abusively toward all of their subordinates. We explore ? Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email  protected] edu (K. J. Harris), Paul. [email  protected] edu (P. Harvey), [email  protected] ua. edu (K. M. Kacmar). 1048-9843/$ – see front matter  © 2011 Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. leaqua. 2011. 07. 020 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 1011 this idea by examining leader–member relationship (LMX) quality as a moderator of the relationship between supervisors' levels of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision. Finally, we advance the extant research by investigating two supervisorrated employee outcomes (work effort, and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB)), one of which has not previously been examined in the context of abusive supervision.These outcomes were chosen as they extend the literature and we were int erested in actual behaviors directed toward the job/task (work effort and task-focused OCB). We examine these relationships, shown in Fig. 1, in two separate samples of matched supervisor–subordinate dyads. Thus, the current study makes several contributions to the literature. First, we examine the in? uence of con? ict between supervisors on subordinate reports of abusive supervision. Examining this relationship is important because although coworker relationship con? cts have negative outcomes, studies have yet to investigate how supervisors experiencing these con? icts treat their subordinates. Second, we investigate LMX quality as a relationship variable that changes how supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision are related. Third, we extend the nomological network of abusive supervision by examining the outcomes of work effort and OCB. Finally, we investigate the potential for abusive supervision to mediate the associations between supe rvisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and distal consequences.Thus, this study takes a ? rst step toward explaining how (through the intermediary mechanism of abusive supervision) supervisors' experiences of coworker relationship con? ict ultimately impact important job outcomes. 2. Abuse as a displaced response to coworker relationship con? ict Abusive supervision is de? ned as prolonged hostile treatment toward subordinates, excluding physical violence (Tepper, 2000). Research indicates that supervisors who perceive that they are victims of interactional or procedural injustice, both of which may be associated with coworker relationship con? ct (Fox, Spector, & Miles, 2001), are relatively more likely than others to abuse their subordinates (Aryee, Chen, Sun, & Debrah, 2007; Tepper, Duffy, Henle, & Lambert, 2006). Tepper, Duffy, Henle, and Lambert (2006) argued that this trickle-down effect, in which supervisors' frustrations are channeled into abusive behaviors targete d at subordinates, may occur because subordinates are a relatively safe target toward which supervisors can vent their frustrations (Tepper, Duffy, Henle, & Lambert, 2006).This argument suggests abusive supervision may be a response to frustrating workplace events such as coworker relationship con? ict. Coworker con? ict has been linked to undesirable emotional states and can negatively impact interpersonal relationships (e. g. , Bergmann & Volkema, 1994; Deutch, 1969). Emotion research suggests that the anger and frustration associated with interpersonal con? ict can promote verbal (e. g. , shouting) and behavioral (e. g. , theft, sabotage, violence) aggression toward those who stimulate the con? ct (e. g. , Ambrose, Seabright, & Schminke, 2002; Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939; Fox & Spector, 1999; Greenberg, 1990; Spector, 1975). Many of these behaviors, with the exception of physical violence, would fall under Tepper's (2000) de? nition of abusive supervision if aime d at subordinates. Drawing on ? ndings from research on displaced aggression we argue that, due to the relative power of supervisors' coworkers, these relationship con? ict-driven behaviors might, in fact, be targeted at subordinates.Displaced aggression occurs when individuals experience mistreatment from one party and respond by mistreating a second party (Hoobler & Brass, 2006, Miller, Pedersen, Earlywine & Pollock, 2003, Twenge & Campbell, 2003). Several triggers of displaced aggression have been identi? ed, including social rejection (Twenge & Campbell, 2003) and negative feedback (Bushman & Baumeister, 1998). Hoobler and Brass (2006) also showed that abusive supervision at work can promote displaced aggression toward family members at home. We examine abusive supervision as a form of displaced aggression ather than a predictor, although both conceptualizations are logical. Displaced aggression is often triggered by unpleasant workplace events (e. g. , Miller, Pedersen, Earlywi ne & Pollock, 2003) and abusive supervision ? ts this criteria. We argue that abusive supervision also can ? t the criteria of displaced aggression if it is triggered by events beyond the control of subordinates, such as the abusers' coworker relationship con? ict. Thus, abusive supervision can likely be both a cause of displaced aggression and a type of displaced aggression.Note: Dashed lines represent hypothesized mediated linkages Supervisor-Rated Subordinate Work Effort Supervisor-Rated Coworker Conflict Abusive Supervision Supervisor-Rated Subordinate TaskFocused OCB Moderator: Leader-Member Exchange Fig. 1. Hypothesized model. 1012 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 As Tepper, Duffy, Henle and Lambert (2006) argued, abusive supervision can be used as a means for venting frustration because subordinates have relatively low levels of retaliatory power and, therefore, serve as a lower-risk target for venting behaviors than do employees in po sitions of greater hierarchical power.Victim precipitation research also supports this logic, indicating that displaced aggression is often targeted at those who are unable or unwilling to defend themselves, as is likely the case among subordinates who can be disciplined and terminated by their supervisors (e. g. , Aquino, 2000). This desire to vent frustration at individuals who are unassociated with the initial con? ict, similar to the anecdotal notion of â€Å"kicking the dog† after a bad day at work, can be understood in the context of displaced aggression. Coworker relationship con? ct is a potent source of stress and frustration (Thomas, 1976, 1992) and, because these are unpleasant, individuals are motivated to engage in coping behaviors that will diminish their presence (Kemper, 1966). These emotion-driven coping behaviors can often take the form of hostile behaviors such as sabotage (Ambrose, Seabright & Schminke, 2002) and verbal assaults (Douglas & Martinko, 2001). Thus, coworker relationship con? ict may trigger aggressive behaviors (e. g. , yelling at others) that serve a coping function. Thomas (1976) noted, however, that the relative power of the parties to a con? ct in? uences the manner in which both parties will respond. When legitimate power levels are equal, as in the case of coworkers, hostile responses are likely to be met with retaliation although it is possible that the target of retaliation will respond with additional hostility, creating an escalating cycle of con? ict. Subordinates, on the other hand, are often reluctant to respond in kind to hostile supervisor behaviors for fear of losing their jobs. The fact that subordinates are not the cause of the supervisor's frustration, that is, the frustration is caused by supervisors' con? ct with their coworkers, may have little impact on the behavioral response if the behavior is largely motivated by emotion as opposed to logic. That is, the desire to vent anger over coworker relat ionship con? ict using a safe target may override concerns that subordinates are not the logical targets for retaliation, given that they are not the cause of the con? ict. Based on these arguments, we predict: Hypothesis 1. Supervisors' reports of coworker relationship con? ict are positively associated with abusive supervisory behaviors, as rated by subordinates. 2. 1. The moderating in? ence of LMX relationship quality Thomas (1976, 1992) argued that a conceptualization process occurs between the con? ict experience and the behavioral outcome in which information is processed and behavioral options are evaluated. Although this cognitive process is likely to incorporate a wide range of information, we argue that an evaluation of relationships with subordinates is particularly relevant when behaviors toward these individuals are concerned. LMX theory suggests that the quality of leader–member relationships varies from high to low (Dienesch & Liden, 1986; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 19 95).Subordinates in high quality exchanges are seen more favorably and receive advantages from their supervisors that their low quality LMX counterparts do not (e. g. , Liden, Sparrowe, & Wayne, 1997). As such, members in high quality exchanges receive preferential treatment from supervisors who are motivated to maintain these productive relationships. We expect that supervisors who experience high levels of coworker relationship con? ict may become abusive toward subordinates, but will be selective in choosing which subordinates to target. Abusive supervisory behaviors generally have a negative effect on ictims' levels of motivation and attitudes toward their jobs (e. g. , Duffy, Ganster & Pagon, 2002; Schat, Desmarais, & Kelloway, 2006). Although it can be argued that effective managers would not want to risk these consequences with any employees, LMX theory would suggest that supervisors are especially motivated to maintain effective relationships with their high quality LMX subo rdinates. We argue, therefore, that supervisors who are frustrated by coworker relationship con? ict and who choose to react in an abusive manner will generally choose low quality LMX subordinates as their targets.Put differently, we expect that when con? ict-driven abuse occurs, members in low quality exchanges will experience it more strongly and frequently than members in high quality exchanges. Justice and victim precipitation theories provide additional support for this argument (e. g. , Aquino, 2000; Bies & Moag, 1986). From a justice perspective, instead of perceiving members of low quality LMX relationships as less risky targets for abuse, it can also be argued that supervisors ? nd it easier to justify abuse toward these employees. Members of low quality exchanges are often characterized by relatively low performance levels (e. . , Deluga & Perry, 1994; Liden, Wayne, & Stilwell, 1993), and it might be argued that supervisors who use abusive behaviors to cope with relationsh ip con? ict-driven frustration will feel most justi? ed in focusing on these employees. That is, supervisors might rationalize the abuse by convincing themselves that relatively lowperforming subordinates in low quality LMX relationships deserve the abusive behavior. Victim precipitation research also suggests that several characteristics common among low quality LMX subordinates make them likely targets of abuse.Although provocative and threatening behaviors have been linked to retaliatory aggression (e. g. , Aquino & Byron, 2002; Tepper, 2007), more salient to our focus on leader–member relationships is the precipitation research indicating that abusive individuals often target those who are seen as weak or defenseless. Individuals who are hesitant to defend themselves or view themselves or their situations negatively appear to draw the attention of aggressive individuals (Aquino, 2000; Olweus, 1978; Rahim, 1983; Tepper, 2007).As discussed above, the hierarchical nature of their relationship likely promotes the former tendency among subordinates, making them relatively safe targets for abuse. Members in low quality exchanges, in particular, might be unwilling to further jeopardize their relationship with their supervisors by retaliating against abuse and might also internalize their undesirable status, promoting the negative perceptions of their workplace competence and situation (e. g. , Ferris, Brown, & Heller, 2009) that can provoke victimization.Similar to our arguments concerning displaced abuse of subordinates, victim precipitation research suggests that these aggressors might wish to engage in abusive behavior as a means to K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 1013 preserve their social standing and bolster perceptions of their control over a situation (e. g. , Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Felson, 1978). As such, this line of research reinforces the notion that subordinates might be targeted for displac ed abuse and suggests that low quality LMX subordinates are especially likely to be viewed as vulnerable, and therefore relatively safe, targets.Based on these arguments, we predict: Hypothesis 2. The relationship between supervisor-reported coworker relationship con? ict and member-reported abusive supervision is moderated by LMX, such that the positive relationship is stronger when LMX relationship quality is lower. 2. 2. Outcomes of abusive supervision The outcome portion of our conceptual model, shown in Fig. 1, examines the effects of abusive supervisory responses to coworker relationship con? ict on work effort and OCB. While we do not posit that abusive supervision is the only factor mediating the relationships between supervisors' coworker relationship con? ct and these outcomes, we argue that abuse can serve as an explanatory mechanism and explain a relevant amount of variance in each consequence. Abusive supervision is a negative workplace event that, like con? ict, can ha ve negative attitudinal and behavioral consequences (Tepper, 2007; Tepper, Henle, Lambert, Giacalone, & Duffy, 2008; Tepper, Moss, Lockhart, & Carr, 2007). It has been argued that these outcomes are caused by the stress and emotional strain associated with abuse from individuals in a position of power (e. g. Duffy, Ganster & Pagon, 2002; Harvey, Stoner, Hochwarter & Kacmar, 2007; Tepper, 2000). Further, Duffy, Ganster and Pagon (2002) found evidence suggesting that abuse promotes diminished self-ef? cacy. As we discuss in the following sections, each of these consequences of abusive supervision can be logically linked to the outcomes depicted in Fig. 1. 2. 2. 1. Work effort Because abusive supervision can diminish victims' con? dence in their abilities (Duffy, Ganster & Pagon, 2002), it follows that motivation to exert high levels of effort at work will likely decrease in response to abuse.Abusive supervisors, who by de? nition are consistent in their abuse (Tepper, 2000), might eve ntually wear employees down with a steady onslaught of aggressive behavior (e. g. , yelling, criticizing), reducing their con? dence and motivation. Similarly, it may be that over time abusive supervision promotes emotional exhaustion (Harvey, Stoner, Hochwarter & Kacmar, 2007; Tepper, 2000), a condition characterized by diminished emotional and physical coping abilities and closely associated with job burnout (Brewer & Shapard, 2004; Cropanzano, Rupp, & Byrne, 2003).Harvey, Stoner, Hochwarter and Kacmar (2007) argued that this relationship was likely due to the persistent assault on employees' feelings and ef? cacy perceptions (Savicki & Cooley, 1983) associated with abusive supervision. When emotional exhaustion occurs, individuals demonstrate diminished motivation and a reduced ability to handle stressful work events, promoting a reduction in work effort (Brewer & Shapard, 2004; Kahill, 1988; Leiter & Maslach, 1988).Using a different lens to view the abuse–work effort asso ciation, employees might also view abusive supervision as a form of psychological contract breach, as subordinates generally do not expect to be abused by those given the authority to supervise them (Tepper, 2000). When employees perceive that a breach has taken place, they often feel less compelled to ful? ll their obligation to exert high levels of work effort (Harris, Kacmar & Zivnuska, 2007). 2. 2. 2. Citizenship behaviors The ? nal outcome depicted in Fig. 1 concerns the negative in? ence of coworker relationship con? ict-driven abuse and subordinates' propensity to engage in OCB. This predicted relationship is based on research indicating that abusive supervision is associated with factors, including decreased organizational commitment, poor work-related attitudes, and injustice perceptions (Aryee, Chen, Sun & Debrah, 2007; Duffy, Ganster & Pagon, 2002; Schat, Desmarais, & Kelloway, 2006; Zellars, Tepper & Duffy, 2002), that can inhibit citizenship behaviors (Ambrose, Seabrigh t & Schminke, 2002; Zellars, Tepper & Duffy, 2002).Victims of abusive supervision often feel that they have been treated unjustly (Tepper, 2000), a perception that is associated with reduced levels of OCB (Moorman, 1991). As Judge, Scott, and Ilies (2006) argued, unjust treatment is likely to qualify as a negative affective event and can therefore provoke a retaliatory behavioral response. One such response could logically be the withholding of citizenship behaviors, which are not a requirement of the job and could run counter to the goal of retaliation by making the supervisor's job easier (e. g. , Zellars, Tepper & Duffy, 2002).In support of this reasoning, additional research indicates that abusive supervision motivates retaliatory behaviors such as workplace deviance and aggression that run contrary to the notion of citizenship behavior (Dupre, Inness, Connelly, Barling, & Hoption, 2006; Schaubhut, Adams, & Jex, 2004). Based on these arguments, we predict: Hypothesis 3. Abusive supervision is negatively related to supervisor reports of subordinate work effort and organizational citizenship behaviors. 2. 3. The mediating role of abusive supervision We have argued that relationship con? ct between supervisors and their coworkers is associated with abusive supervisory behaviors, and that such behaviors have negative implications for victims' levels of work effort and OCB. Implicit in this line of reasoning is the notion that coworker relationship con? ict at the supervisor level is ultimately associated with decreased levels of 1014 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 effort and OCB at the subordinate level, and that abusive supervision acts a mediator between these variables. More speci? ally, the negative effects of supervisors' relationship con? ict with their coworkers are predicted to manifest themselves in the form of abusive behaviors that negatively affect employees' attitudes and behaviors, promoting negative sub ordinate outcomes. Thus, while a relationship between a supervisor's level of coworker relationship con? ict and subordinates' levels of effort and OCB may seem somewhat abstract, we suggest that coworker relationship con? ict-driven abusive supervision provides an intermediary link between these variables.Based on these arguments, we predict: Hypothesis 4. Abusive supervision mediates the negative relationships between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and work effort and organizational citizenship behaviors. 3. Method 3. 1. Samples and procedures The samples utilized in this study were from two different divisions of a state government. The division in Sample 1 was responsible for handling disease related issues (e. g. , STDs, immunizations, tuberculosis), whereas the division in Sample 2 handled environmental health related issues (e. g. , radiation, clean water).To begin the data collection efforts, the director of each division sent an email to all employees in th eir branch. The email informed the potential respondents of the study's purpose, that participation was voluntary, and that the results would be con? dential. After this email, the researchers sent a personalized message again explaining the goal of the survey, the con? dentiality of responses, and a web link to the survey. Respondents were asked to complete the survey during the next month. Respondents were required to provide their supervisor's name to match supervisor–subordinate responses.At the same time, supervisors were asked to provide ratings on each of their direct reports. In Sample 1, eliminating responses with missing data or those that were unable to be matched (i. e. , we received a subordinate response, but not a matching supervisor response) resulted in a sample size of 121 (58% response rate). Subordinates were 68% female, the average age was 41. 68 years, the average job tenure was 3. 38 years, and their average organizational tenure was 5. 22 years. In tot al, 28 supervisors provided ratings, resulting in an average of 4. 32 ratings per supervisor.For the supervisors, the demographic breakdown was 57% female, the average age was 47. 91 years, the average job tenure was 4. 79 years, and their average organizational tenure was 7. 73 years. After the elimination of unusable responses in Sample 2, our usable sample size was 134 (64% response rate). Participants in Sample 2 were 60% male, had an average age of 46. 04 years, average job tenure of 7. 04 years, and average organizational tenure of 11. 51 years. Forty-four supervisors provided ratings, which resulted in an average of 3. 05 ratings per supervisor.The demographic breakdown for the supervisors was 75% male, an average age of 49. 29 years, average job tenure of 9. 64 years, and average organizational tenure of 16. 26 years. 3. 2. Measures Unless otherwise noted, a 5-point Likert scale (anchors: â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (5)) was used for a ll survey items. Scales were coded with high values representing high levels of the constructs. 3. 3. Subordinate measures 3. 3. 1. Abusive supervision In both samples abusive supervision was measured with six items from Tepper's (2000) measure.We were unable to use the full 15-item measure due to management concerns about the survey's overall length. Thus, we had experts in the area look at the content of each of the items, and we chose 6 items that best captured the full range of abusive supervisory behaviors. The items we chose were â€Å"My supervisor makes negative comments about me to others,† â€Å"My supervisor gives me the silent treatment,† â€Å"My supervisor expresses anger at me when he/she is mad for another reason,† â€Å"My supervisor is rude to me,† â€Å"My supervisor breaks promises he/she makes,† and â€Å"My supervisor puts me down in front of others. In an effort to establish the validity of our shortened scale, we compared o ur reduced scale to the full measure using the data from the Tepper (2000) article. 1 We found that the full 15-item scale was correlated with our 6-item scale at . 96. The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 90 for Sample 1 and . 92 for Sample 2. 3. 3. 2. Leader–member exchange We used Liden and Maslyn's (1998) 12-item leader–member exchange multidimensional scale to measure exchange quality in both samples. A sample item included â€Å"My supervisor would defend me to others in the organization if I made an honest mistake. The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 94 for Sample 1 and . 92 for Sample 2. 1 We thank Ben Tepper for allowing us to use his original data for this correlation. K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 1015 3. 4. Supervisor measures 3. 4. 1. Coworker relationship con? ict In both samples supervisors rated their relationship con? icts with their coworkers using the 4-item Jehn (1995) scale. A sample item included à ¢â‚¬Å"Is there tension among your coworkers? † These questions were included in a section of the survey here the supervisors were answering questions about their attitudes, behaviors, and relationships with their coworkers. This section was separate from the section where supervisors commented on their subordinates, thus making it clear that these relationship con? ict questions were focused on coworkers at their level in the organization (e. g. , managers' relationship con? icts with other managers). The response scale for this construct was â€Å"Not at all (1)† to â€Å"To a very great extent (5)†. The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 95 for Sample 1 and . 94 for Sample 2. 3. 4. 2.Work effort In both samples supervisors rated subordinates' work effort using Brown and Leigh's (1996) 5-item scale. A sample item was â€Å"When there's a job to be done, this subordinate devotes all his/her energy to getting it done. † The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 93 for Sample 1 and . 94 for Sample 2. 3. 4. 3. Organizational citizenship behaviors Supervisors responded to Settoon and Mossholder's (2002) 6-item scale to measure subordinate task-focused OCB in both samples. A sample item was â€Å"This subordinate assists coworkers with heavy work loads even though it is not part of the job. The Cronbach alpha for the scale was . 84 for Sample 1 and . 81 for Sample 2. 3. 5. Control variables We controlled for four variables, all measured from the subordinate, in an effort to minimize potentially spurious relationships. The variables we controlled for were age (measured in years), job tenure (measured in months), organizational tenure (measured in months), and supervisor–subordinate relationship tenure (measured in months). 3. 6. Analytical approach In both samples in this study, supervisors' coworker relationship con? ict responses were used as predictors of subordinate outcomes (i. . , cross-level main effect). Thus, a single supervi sor coworker relationship con? ict rating was used as the predictor variable for multiple subordinates. As a result, for these variables there was no within-supervisor variance and all of the variance was between supervisors (i. e. , ICCs were 1. 00). Additionally, supervisors provided ratings on certain scales (e. g. , work effort and OCB) for multiple subordinates, thus resulting in a supervisor effect (e. g. , ICC1s for OCB of . 11 in sample 1 and . 13 and sample 2, and ICC2s of . 48 in sample 1 and . 51 in sample 2).To account for the supervisor-level effect in our data, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM: Raudenbush, Bryk, Cheong, & Congdon, 2004) with grand-mean centering was used to carry out our analyses. In the HLM analyses involving supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict, this variable was included as a Level 2 variable (Raudenbush, Bryk, Cheong & Congdon, 2004). To test Hypotheses 1–2, there were four steps. In the ? rst step, we entered the four control va riables. In the second step we entered the Level 2 variable of supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict, and it was here that we tested Hypothesis 1.In the third step, we entered the Level 1 moderator variable, LMX. In the fourth step, we entered the cross-level interaction term formed between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and LMX. It was in this step that we tested Hypothesis 2. To test the abusive supervision-outcome and mediation hypotheses (3 and 4), we conducted Baron and Kenny's (1986) threestep procedure. The HLM equations are available from the ? rst author request. 4. Results The means, standard deviations, and correlation matrix for the variables in this study are provided in Table 1 for Sample 1 and Table 2 for Sample 2.In both samples abusive supervision was signi? cantly correlated with supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict, as well as our dependent variables. Given that a few of the correlations between our focal variables were h igh, we elected to run a series of con? rmatory factor analyses (CFA) on the scales used in our study to ensure that they were independent and that the items produced the expected factor structures. These analyses were run on both samples separately. To conduct our CFAs, we used LISREL 8. 80, a covariance matrix as input, and a maximum-likelihood estimation.We elected to conduct our CFA analyses using composite indicators rather than items due to the large number of items and our moderate sample sizes. To create our composite indicators, we assigned items based on factor loadings from an exploratory factor analysis (Bagozzi & Heatherton, 1994; Eddleston, Viega, & Powell, 2006). Speci? cally, for our four-item scales we combined the two items with the highest and lowest factor loadings to the ? rst indicator and the remaining two items to the second indicator. For the ? ve-item scales we created the ? st indicator as described above and included the remaining three items on the secon d indicator. For our six-item scale we paired the highest and lowest loading item to create the ? rst indicator and then repeated this process for the remaining two indicators. Finally, for the LMX scale we used the four subscales (loyalty, contribution, professional respect, and affect) as composite indicators. Our approach resulted in 15 indicators for our 6 scales. 1016 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among study variables in Sample 1.Variable 1. Abusive supervision 2. Sup. coworker con? ict 3. Leader–member exchange (LMX) 4. Work effort 5. OCB 6. LMX affect 7. LMX contribution 8. LMX loyalty 9. LMX professional respect 10. Age 11. Job tenure 12. Organizational tenure 13. Relationship tenure Mean 1. 31 3. 03 3. 92 4. 03 3. 87 3. 86 4. 10 3. 69 4. 03 41. 68 3. 38 5. 22 1. 99 SD . 57 1. 02 . 77 . 79 . 72 . 97 . 68 . 84 1. 09 11. 1 3. 88 5. 23 2. 02 1 . 77 . 21? ? . 67 ? . 27 ? . 29 .60 .36 .69 .62 .10 . 10 . 05 . 25 2 . 95 ? .11 ? .20? ? . 18? ? . 05 . 04 . 19? ? . 14 . 01 . 23? .01 . 17 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 .76 . 3 .35 .91 .77 .83 .90 ? . 00 . 05 . 08 ? .00 .86 . 40 .28 .22? .35 .28 .03 ? .00 . 10 . 00 .65 . 27 .22? .33 .35 .01 ? .03 . 05 . 12 .92 . 62 .68 .79 ? . 02 . 11 . 11 . 04 .75 . 56 .58 .11 . 05 . 11 . 04 .74 . 64 ? . 04 ? .01 . 05 ? .11 .94 ? .03 . 02 . 01 . 02 – . 35 .39 .26 – . 69 .48 – . 49 Note: Values in italics on the diagonal are the square root of the average variance explained which must be larger than all zero-order correlations in the row and column in which they appear to demonstrate discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).N = 121. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. We began by estimating a six-factor solution, with each factor representing a scale in our study. Fit indices, shown in Table 3, indicate that the six-factor model ? t the data. To verify that the six-factor structure was the best representation of our data, we estimated three alternative models and compared them to our baseline model via chi-square difference tests. The alternative models estimated included two ? ve-factor models and a unidimensional model. The alternative models were created by combining scales that had strong correlations to form a larger factor.The ? rst alternative model combined abusive supervision and LMX into one factor while the second combined OCB and work effort. A description of each alternative model and the CFA results are offered in Table 3. As shown in Table 3, the chi-square difference test results support the six-factor structure as originally designed. To further explore the discriminant validity of our scales we followed the procedure outlined by Fornell and Larcker (1981) and calculated the square root of the average variance explained for each of the scales in our study.This value, which we present on the diagonal in Tables 1 and 2, represents the variance accounted for by the items that com pose the scale. To demonstrate discriminant validity, this value must exceed the corresponding latent variable correlations in the same row and column. If this condition is met, then we have evidence that the variance shared between any two constructs is less than the average variance explained by the items that compose the scale (i. e. , discriminant validity). As shown in Tables 1 and 2, this condition is met for all of the scales used in our study.The HLM results predicting abusive supervision are shown in Tables 4 (for Sample 1) and 5 (for Sample 2) and the HLM results investigating abusive supervision as a mediator and/or predictor are provided in Tables 6 and 7. First describing our interaction results in Table 4, step 1 reveals that relationship tenure (? = . 08, p b . 05) was the only control variable signi? cantly associated with abusive supervision. Step 2 shows that supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict are positively and signi? cantly related to abusive su pervision (? = . 09, p b . 05).This result provides support for Hypothesis 1 in Sample 1. Step 3 in this analysis shows that LMX was negatively associated with abusive supervision (? = ?. 48, p b . 01). Finally, step 4 shows that the interaction term between supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and LMX was negatively and signi? cantly related to abusive Table 2 Means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among study variables in Sample 2. Variable 1. Abusive supervision 2. Sup. coworker con? ict 3. LMX12 (overall) 4. Work effort 5. OCB 6. LMX affect 7. LMX contribution 8. LMX loyalty 9.LMX professional respect 10. Age 11. Job tenure 12. Organizational tenure 13. Relationship tenure Mean 1. 32 2. 42 4. 04 4. 31 4. 31 4. 04 4. 15 3. 78 4. 19 45. 86 6. 55 11. 16 6. 08 SD . 58 . 76 . 60 . 73 . 67 . 78 . 56 . 78 . 95 6. 89 2. 66 4. 37 2. 12 1 . 92 . 15? ? . 55 ? . 26 ? . 21? ? . 53 .05 ? .52 ? . 57 .04 . 02 . 01 ? .01 2 . 94 ? .04 ? .03 ? .19? ? . 03 ? .06 ? .02 ? . 02 ? .15 ? .09 ? .07 . 00 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 .92 . 09 . 05 . 84 .53 .83 .86 ? . 07 . 08 . 05 . 07 .87 . 72 ? . 01 ? .03 . 18? .11 ? .03 ? .00 . 03 ? .02 .85 . 01 ? .13 . 09 . 13 ? .13 . 1 ? .05 . 07 .88 . 28 .56 .69 ? . 10 . 05 ? .03 . 00 .71 . 38 .22? .08 . 16* . 18? .15 .84 . 59 ? . 08 . 03 . 03 . 01 .95 ? .06 . 04 . 01 . 08 – . 14 . 23 .18? – . 61 .27 – . 26 Note: Values in italics on the diagonal are the square root of the average variance explained which must be larger than all zero-order correlations in the row and column in which they appear to demonstrate discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). N = 134. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Table 3 Alternative model test results.Model Sample 1 (N = 121) Baseline 6-factor model 5-factor combining abuse and LMX 5-factor combining work effort and OCB 1-factor Sample 2 (N = 134) Baseline 6-factor model 5-factor combining abuse and LMX 5- factor combining work effort and OCB 1-factor X2 102 196 127 706 df 75 80 80 90 X2diff dfdiff CFI . 98 . 95 . 97 . 59 NFI . 95 . 91 . 94 . 57 1017 RMSEA . 048 . 093 . 059 . 200 94 25 604 5 5 15 112 276 224 1177 75 80 80 90 164 112 1065 5 5 15 .98 . 93 . 93 . 47 .94 . 89 . 89 . 46 .056 . 125 . 107 . 280 Note: Abuse = abusive supervision, LMX = leader–member exchange, OCB = organizational citizenship behaviors. p b . 001. supervision (? = ?. 12, p b . 01). Overall, the results in Table 5 (Sample 2) are similar. In step 1 none of the control variables were signi? cantly associated with the outcome, but in step 2, supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict were positively and signi? cantly related to abusive supervision (? = . 11, p b . 05), again supporting Hypothesis 1. Step 3 in Table 5 shows that LMX was negatively associated with abusive supervision (? = ?. 54, p b . 01). In the ? nal step, the supervisor reported coworker relationship con? ict ? LMX interaction t erm was negatively and signi? antly related to abusive supervision (? = ? .29, p b . 05). To determine support for our interaction hypothesis, we graphed the two signi? cant moderating effects. We did so by plotting two slopes, one at one standard deviation below and one at one standard deviation above the mean (Stone & Hollenbeck, 1989). Figs. 2 (for Sample 1) and 3 (for Sample 2) illustrate the signi? cant interactions and show that the positive relationships between supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision were stronger when LMX relationship quality was lower.Additionally, we calculated simple slopes for each of our interactions. In sample 1, we found that the slope of the low LMX line was signi? cant (t = 2. 00, p b . 05), whereas the slope of the high LMX line was not signi? cant. Similar to sample 1, in sample 2 the slope of the low LMX was signi? cant (t = 2. 11, p b . 05), but the slope of the high LMX line was not signi? cant. In total, t hese results provide support for Hypothesis 2 in both samples. Tables 6 and 7 provide the results of our mediation analyses. First discussing the results from Sample 1 shown in Table 6, supervisor-reported coworker relationship con? ct was signi? cantly related to abusive supervision (? = . 09, p b . 05) (which ful? lls one of Baron and Kenny's (1986) mediation requirements) and to OCB (? = ? .08, p b . 10) and work effort (? = ?. 14, p b . 05) (ful? lling another mediation requirement). Steps 2c and 3c show that when both supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision are entered into the equation, the coworker relationship con? ict variable is no longer signi? cant. In particular, the gammas for supervisor-reported coworker relationship con? ict predicting OCB dropped from ?. 08 to ?. 6 and for predicting work effort dropped from ?. 14 to ? .11. However, abusive supervision is signi? cantly and positively related to OCB (? = ?. 37, p b . 01) and signi ? cantly and negatively related to work effort (? = ?. 27, p b . 05). Thus, Hypothesis 3 is supported in Sample 1. In terms of the mediation results, the results from Baron and Kenny's (1986) three-step procedure show that abusive supervision fully mediated the relationship between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and OCB and partially mediated the relationship with work effort. Thus, Hypothesis 4 was supported in Sample 1.Table 4 Hierarchical linear modeling results predicting abusive supervision in Sample 1. Step 1 Control variables: Age Job tenure Organizational tenure Relationship tenure Independent variable Sup-rated coworker con? ict (A) Moderator: LMX (B) Interaction term: A? B ? R2 . 00 . 00 ? .01 . 08? Step 2 . 00 ? .00 ? .01 . 07 . 09? Step 3 . 00 . 00 ? .00 . 07? .05? ? . 48 Step 4 . 00 ? .00 ? .00 . 06? .05 ? .46 ? . 12 .02 .02 .02 .45 Note: Sup-rated coworker con? ict = supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict, LMX = leader–member exchange. N = 121. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. 018 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Table 5 Hierarchical linear modeling results predicting abusive supervision in Sample 2. Step 1 Control variables: Age Job tenure Organizational tenure Relationship tenure Independent variable Sup-rated coworker con? ict (A) Moderator: LMX (B) Interaction term: A? B ? R2 . 00 . 00 ? .00 ? .00 Step 2 . 01 .00 ? .00 ? .00 . 11? Step 3 ? .00 . 00 ? .00 . 00 . 09? ? . 54 Step 4 . 00 . 00 ? .00 . 00 . 13? ? . 55 ? . 29 .05 .01 .01 .35 Note: Sup-rated coworker con? ict = supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ct, LMX = leader–member exchange. N = 134. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. Next we turn to the HLM results presented for Sample 2 in Table 7. This table shows that supervisor-reported coworker relationship con? ict was signi? cantly related to abusive supervision in step 1b (which passes Baron and Kenny's (1986) ? rst step) and OCB (in step 2b), but not work effort (in ste p 3b). These results pass the ? rst two steps for mediation for OCB, but not work effort. Table 7 also reveals that abusive supervision is negatively and signi? cantly related to OCB (? = ?. 26, p b . 05) in step 2c, and signi? antly and negatively related to work effort (? = ?. 39, p b . 01) in step 3c. Thus, Hypothesis 3, which was supported in Sample 1, is also supported in Sample 2. Step 2c shows that when both supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision are entered into the equation, the coworker relationship con? ict variable is no longer a signi? cant predictor of OCB. In terms of the mediation results, the results from Baron and Kenny's (1986) three-step procedure show that abusive supervision mediated the relationship between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ct and OCB, but not work effort. Thus, Hypothesis 4, which was supported for both dependent variables in Sample 1, was only supported for OCB in Sample 2. 5. Discussion The pu rpose of this study was to further our knowledge of the predictors and outcomes of abusive supervision. We pursued this goal by examining supervisor reports of relationship con? ict with their coworkers as a predictor of subordinate-rated abusive supervision, and LMX quality as a situational variable in? uencing this relationship. Additionally, we examined the outcomes of supervisor-rated OCB nd work effort and found that abusive supervision fully mediated the relationships between supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict and OCB in both samples and the outcomes of work effort in one sample. Returning to our theoretical arguments, we found that displaced aggression and LMX theories provide useful lenses for discussing predictors and outcomes of abusive supervision. Coworker relationship con? ict at any level is a potent source of stress and frustration as it impedes the achievement of goals and the attainment of desired outcomes (e. g. , Thomas, 1976).Like past abusive s upervision research (Tepper, Duffy, Henle & Lambert, 2006), our results suggest that some supervisors will resort to abusive behaviors against their employees as a means of coping with these consequences. This study advances existing research by explicitly examining situations where subordinates are not the logical target of retaliation (i. e. , they are not the source of the con? ict). Because subordinates are an easy and accessible target, however, having less power and less of an ability to retaliate, they make relatively safe candidates for abuse from frustrated supervisors.Table 6 Hierarchical linear modeling mediation results in Sample 1. DV = abusive supervision Step 1a Age Job tenure Organizational tenure Relationship tenure Supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict Abusive supervision Note: OCB = organizational citizenship behaviors. N = 121. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. .00 . 00 ? .01 . 08? Step 1b . 00 ? .00 ? .01 . 07 . 09? Step 2a . 00 ? .02 . 00 . 05 DV = OCB DV = work effort Step 2b . 00 ? .01 ? .00 . 05 ? .08+ Step 2c . 00 ? .01 ? .00 . 07 ? .06 ? .27? Step 3a ? .00 ? .02 . 02 . 00 Step 2b ? .00 ? .01 . 02 . 01 ? .14? Step 3c . 0 ? .01 . 01 . 04 . 11 ? .37 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 Table 7 Hierarchical linear modeling mediation results in Sample 2. DV = abusive supervision Step 1a Age Job tenure Organizational tenure Relationship tenure Supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict Abusive supervision Note: OCB = organizational citizenship behaviors. N = 134. ? p b . 05. p b . 01. .00 . 00 ? .00 ? .00 Step 1b . 01 . 00 ? .00 ? .00 . 11? Step 2a ? .01 ? .00 . 00 . 00 DV = OCB DV = work effort 1019 Step 2b ? .01 ? .00 . 00 . 00 ? .13? Step 2c ? .01 . 0 ? .00 . 00 ? .09 ? .26? Step 3a ? .00 ? .00 . 00 ? .00 Step 3b ? .00 ? .00 . 00 ? .00 ? .03 Step 3c . 00 ? .00 . 00 ? .00 . 02 ? .39 Additionally, when supervisors experience coworker relationship con? ict, our results indicate that they are most l ikely to abuse subordinates with whom they have low quality LMX relationships. This ? nding appears to support our argument that supervisors will focus their abusive behaviors on those employees in low quality exchanges in order to shield their high quality relationships from the detrimental effects of abusive supervision.In this way, supervisors may reason that abusive behaviors allow them to vent frustration while minimizing the negative in? uence of this coping behavior on their most valued employees. Naturally, there are ? aws in this method of coping, most notably that the performance levels of abused employees will likely suffer, causing added strain and frustration for other employees and the supervisors themselves. Among supervisors who make the problematic choice to cope through abuse, however, it appears that employees in low-quality relationships are the most likely targets.We also extended abusive supervision research with our ? ndings indicating that this variable is re lated to the outcomes of OCB and work effort. These ? ndings are noteworthy as they extend the nomological network of outcomes related to abusive supervision, and because both outcomes were supervisor-rated, which helps to minimize common source bias concerns (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Additionally, in sample 1 we found that abusive supervision served as an intermediary mechanism explaining the relationships between supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ct and both consequences examined, and that there was also mediation on the outcome of OCB in sample 2. These results are important as they begin to answer the questions related to how situational supervisor variables, such as coworker relationship con? ict, ultimately are translated into subordinate outcomes. Surprisingly, we did not ? nd support for the work effort mediation hypothesis in Sample 2. A post hoc explanation for these insigni? cant ? ndings may relate to the demographic composition of th e samples. Sample 2 was different from Sample 1 for both subordinates and supervisors.It was primarily male, the average age was higher, and average job and organizational tenure were both more than double (except for supervisor job tenure) those in the ? rst sample. Although it is possible to deduce explanations as to how these differences might have in? uenced our results, such atheoretical logic would be overly speculative. Thus, as we suggest below, we encourage replicative research in additional samples that would allow for a more systematic assessment of these, or other, sample-speci? c characteristics. 5. 1. Contributions These ? dings make several contributions to the extant research on abusive supervision and LMX relationships. First, they build support for the notion of displaced abusive supervision and undermine a potential alternative explanation. In Tepper's (2007) review of abusive supervision literature, he concluded that supervisors' perceptions of organization-level factors, such as Fig. 2. Moderating effect of LMX on the relationship between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision in Sample 1. 1020 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023Fig. 3. Moderating effect of LMX on the relationship between supervisor-rated coworker relationship con? ict and abusive supervision in Sample 2. injustice and contract violation, can trigger abuse toward individual targets (i. e. , subordinates). He argued that this phenomenon might be explained by displaced aggression logic, in that subordinates serve as safe abuse targets even if the abuse is unlikely to resolve the perceptions triggering the desire to be abusive. An alternative, although somewhat tenuous, explanation is that these negative perceptions in? ence animosity toward the overall organization and that supervisors justify the abuse of subordinates who are seen as complicit in the perceived negative aspects of the organization. Our ? ndings suggest that this alternative basis of justi? cation would not adequately explain displaced abusive supervision. Looking beyond generalized organizational perceptions, we found that even frustration stemming from speci? c, identi? able non-subordinate sources (i. e. , supervisors' coworkers) might translate into abuse toward subordinates.This suggests that abusive supervision may serve as a â€Å"self-defeating† coping mechanism (e. g. , Baumeister & Scher, 1988), akin to mechanisms such as problem drinking and procrastination, in that it seeks short-term stress-reduction (e. g. , through emotional venting) in a harmful way that does not address the true source of the underlying problem (e. g. , con? ict with peers). We also expand on Tepper's conclusion, again stemming from his 2007 review of abusive supervision research, that subordinate characteristics in? uence the likelihood that they will experience abuse.As in the present study, Tepper (2007) cited victimization research to argue that subordinates who appear overly provocative or passive put themselves at a heightened risk for abuse. Expanding on the latter idea, we argued and observed that employees in low quality LMX relationships, who we expect demonstrate relatively high levels of passivity and vulnerability, report higher levels of abuse. This suggests that instead of identifying each of the potential subordinate characteristics that can incite abuse, a more parsimonious approach might be to look at broad relationship variables such as LMX that can be viewed as re? cting the aggregate impact of these individual characteristics. This conclusion also adds to LMX research by revealing an additional consequence of low-quality LMX relationships. In addition to the wide body of research showing that low-quality LMX subordinates experience outcomes such as fewer rewards, lower resource levels, and reduced job satisfaction (e. g. , Liden, Sparrowe & Wayne, 1997), this study suggests a more se rious potential consequence in the form of victimization by abusive supervisors.Additionally, our results, and the fact that most were replicated across the two samples, demonstrate the utility of multi-level models for predicting employee consequences of abusive supervision. Abusive supervision is an inherently multi-level phenomenon and this study shows that insights into some causes of abuse, such as con? ict levels between supervisors, exist that cannot be assessed from subordinate self-reports. Similarly, it identi? es supervisor-rated subordinate outcomes of abusive supervision (effort levels and OCB) that are dif? cult to assess with self-reports due to social desirability and common source bias concerns.Further, these supervisor-rated effects provide some indication that abusive supervisors are at least indirectly aware of the selfdefeating consequences of abuse. Our data do not tell us whether supervisors consciously related their abuse to lower levels of employee effort an d citizenship behavior. Their awareness of lower levels among the abused subordinates, however, suggests that a degree of denial would be necessary for the supervisors to overlook these cause–effect relationships. Although existing research has not, to our knowledge, explicitly stated that supervisors are unaware of the consequences of abusive behavior, this ? ding suggests that future research on preventing abuse might bene? t from focusing not on why supervisors view the behavior as acceptable, but why they engage in it despite an apparent awareness of these consequences. 5. 2. Limitations In addition to the aforementioned strengths and contributions, there are limitations that we must acknowledge to properly interpret the study's results. First we acknowledge that the theoretical framework we have developed is not the only logical explanation for the hypothesized and observed relationships.For example, it is plausible that the link between supervisors' coworker relationshi p con? ict and abusive supervision is less cognitive than we have argued. Instead of selectively choosing subordinates as a low-risk target for venting frustration, it might be that some supervisors simply possess traits that predispose K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 1021 them toward con? ict and abusive behaviors (with higher levels of abuse directed at low quality members). Examples of such traits might include negative affectivity or hostile attribution styles (Douglas & Martinko, 2001).An investigation of these possibilities would be useful in forming a more comprehensive understanding of the empirical relationships observed in the present study. In terms of methodological limitations, survey length constraints required us to use a reduced version of the abusive supervision scale. Even though we chose items that tapped into the full set of behaviors and found an extremely high correlation between our shortened measure and the full scale , this may still be viewed as a limitation. Another limitation is that we were unable to measure causality.Thus, there is the potential that our relationships actually have reverse causality or that variables predict each other in a recursive manner. This is particularly true regarding the association between LMX perceptions and abusive supervision. Our results suggest that supervisors are more abusive toward some employees than others and that this difference is associated with variations in subordinates' LMX scores. It can be argued, and is indeed very likely, that an abused employee would report lower LMX scores because of the abuse.The ? nding that supervisors are selective in their abuse targets suggests that some criterion is evaluated before targets are chosen and we have argued that preexisting LMX relationship qualities could serve as this criterion. Our design does not allow us to make this claim de? nitively, however. Similarly, it may be that abusive supervision is not t he predictor of work effort, but that insuf? cient effort by subordinates promotes higher levels of abusive supervision or that both variables in? uence each other in a cyclical manner.We are particularly sensitive to the argument that there may be a feedback loop between abusive supervision and the outcome variables, such that abuse reduces subordinates' effort and citizenship levels, and this reduction provokes further abuse, although the design of the study did not allow us to test this possibility. Along a similar line, it could be that abusive supervision toward subordinates is actually the cause of the supervisors' con? ict among peers. We hope that future studies will be designed to better answer these causality questions.There are also limitations associated with the sampling of public, white-collar organizations. Different organizations (e. g. , private, military, blue-collar) have different rules and norms governing behavior and it is likely that the abusive supervisory be haviors studied would be more or less permissible, and therefore more or less common, in different organizational settings. 5. 3. Directions for future research This study's ? ndings suggest a number of directions for future research. First, we hope future researchers will examine our hypotheses in other, more diverse samples.Although we examined two separate organizations, it is necessary to examine additional samples to better establish the generalizability or boundary conditions of our relationships. A second suggestion is to examine the relationships in this study with a longitudinal research design. The extant research on abusive supervision, including this study, has primarily relied on cross-sectional designs. Although telling, these studies leave out situations and behaviors that impact subordinates over time. In the case of both supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ct and abusive supervision, it may be that supervisors and subordinates learn to cope with these s ituations, and become accustomed to them. Conversely, it could be that these situations and behaviors become worse as they accumulate over time (Harris, Kacmar, & Witt, 2005) as argued by Tepper (2000) and as noted in our discussion of cyclical relationships between abuse and behavioral outcomes in the previous section. Another avenue for future research is to conduct additional multi-level investigations to determine how supervisor experiences and situations impact their subordinates.In this study we examined supervisor reports of coworker relationship con? ict, but it also would be interesting to investigate the effect of supervisors' supervisor relationship con? ict, abusive supervision, LMX, team member exchange, and perceived organizational support (Erdogan & Enders, 2007; Tangirala, Green, & Ramanujam, 2007) as these variables are likely to have â€Å"trickle-down† effects on employee outcomes. Additionally, the aforementioned implication that supervisors might be aware of the consequences of abusive supervision suggests that a multilevel, or at least supervisor-level, focus on understanding the justi? ation process might provide insight into interventions for preventing such behavior. It would also be interesting to investigate personality characteristics, such as Machiavellianism, entitlement, and narcissism, of supervisors and subordinates and how these variables are related to abuse (Harvey & Harris, 2010; Kiazad, Restubog, Zagenczyk, Kiewitz, & Tang, 2010). Finally, we examined LMX from the perspective of the member, but it would be insightful to investigate leader reports of the LMX quality with their subordinates and how this rating interacts with supervisor coworker con? ict. 5. 4. Practical implications Before discussing speci? practical implications from this study, it should be noted that the overarching implication from this and most of the existing body of research on abusive supervision is that abusive supervision is detrimental to a ll parties. It is stressful for victims and hurts organizational performance and a supervisor's effectiveness by negatively affecting desirable outcomes (see Tepper, 2007) such as increased levels of effort and OCB. Employees may feel intimidated and afraid to report the behavior of abusive supervisors, however, making it dif? cult for organizational leaders to identify and eliminate these abusive managers.Because of the dif? culty in reducing existing levels of abuse, preventative techniques for reducing the likelihood of abusive supervision are advisable. The results of this study suggest that one such technique is for organizational leaders to observe and mediate con? icts between supervisory employees, thereby removing an antecedent of abusive behaviors. Additionally, because the supervisors in our study were more likely to abuse employees with whom they shared low-quality relationships, an organization-wide focus on the development of strong leader–member relationships m ight foster a climate where there are few 022 K. J. Harris et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 22 (2011) 1010–1023 desirable targets for abuse. We acknowledge that neither of these suggestions (i. e. , mediating supervisor con? icts and promoting strong leader–member relationships) are simple tasks. We suggest, however, that a continuous focus on these goals would consume far less time and energy than dealing with the consequences of abusive supervision. 6